Internal noise measures in coarse and fine motion direction discrimination tasks and the correlation with autism traits.

Motion perception is essential for visual guidance of behavior and is known to be limited by both internal additive noise (i.e., a constant level of random fluctuations in neural activity independent of the stimulus) and motion pooling (global integration of local motion signals across space). People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display abnormalities in motion processing, which have been linked to both elevated noise and abnormal pooling. However, to date, the impact of a third limit-induced internal noise (internal noise that scales up with increases in external stimulus noise)-has not been investigated in motion perception of any group. Here, we describe an extension on the double-pass paradigm to quantify additive noise and induced noise in a motion paradigm. We also introduce a new way to experimentally estimate motion pooling. We measured the impact of induced noise on direction discrimination, which we ascribe to fluctuations in decision-related variables. Our results are suggestive of higher internal noise in individuals with high ASD traits only on coarse but not fine motion direction discrimination tasks. However, we report no significant correlations between autism traits and additive noise, induced noise, or motion pooling in either task. We conclude that, under some conditions, the internal noise may be higher in individuals with pronounced ASD traits and that the assessment of induced internal noise is a useful way of exploring decision-related limits on motion perception, irrespective of ASD traits.

From intermodulation components to visual perception and cognition-a review.

Perception results from complex interactions among sensory and cognitive processes across hierarchical levels in the brain. Intermodulation (IM) components, used in frequency tagging neuroimaging designs, have emerged as a promising direct measure of such neural interactions. IMs have initially been used in electroencephalography (EEG) to investigate low-level visual processing. In a more recent trend, IMs in EEG and other neuroimaging methods are being used to shed light on mechanisms of mid- and high-level perceptual processes, including the involvement of cognitive functions such as attention and expectation. Here, we provide an account of various mechanisms that may give rise to IMs in neuroimaging data, and what these IMs may look like. We discuss methodologies that can be implemented for different uses of IMs and we demonstrate how IMs can provide insights into the existence, the degree and the type of neural integration mechanisms at hand. We then review a range of recent studies exploiting IMs in visual perception research, placing an emphasis on high-level vision and the influence of awareness and cognition on visual processing. We conclude by suggesting future directions that can enhance the benefits of IM-methodology in perception research.

Modeling stochastic resonance in humans: The influence of lapse rate.

Adding noise to sensory signals generally decreases human performance. However, noise can improve performance too, through a process called stochastic resonance (SR). This paradoxical effect may be exploited in psychophysical experiments to provide insights into how the sensory system processes noise. Here, I develop an extension on signal detection theory to model stochastic resonance. I show that the inclusion of lapse rate allows for the occurrence of stochastic resonance in terms of the performance metric d', when the criterion is set suboptimally. High levels of lapse rate, however, cause stochastic resonance to disappear. It is also shown that noise generated in the brain (i.e., internal noise) may obscure any effect of stochastic resonance in experimental settings. I further relate the model to a standard equivalent noise model, the linear amplifier model, and show that lapse rate scales the threshold versus noise (TvN) curve, similar to the efficiency parameter in equivalent noise (EN) models. Therefore, lapse rate provides a psychophysical explanation for reduced efficiency in EN paradigms. Furthermore, I note that ignoring lapse rate may lead to an overestimation of internal noise in EN paradigms. Overall, describing stochastic resonance in terms of signal detection theory, with the inclusion of lapse rate, may provide valuable new insights into how human performance depends on internal and external noise. It may have applications in improving human performance in situations where the criterion is set suboptimally, and it may provide additional insight into internal noise hypotheses related to autism spectrum disorder.

Different Signal Enhancement Pathways of Attention and Consciousness Underlie Perception in Humans.

It is not yet known whether attention and consciousness operate through similar or largely different mechanisms. Visual processing mechanisms are routinely characterized by measuring contrast response functions (CRFs). In this report, behavioral CRFs were obtained in humans (both males and females) by measuring afterimage durations over the entire range of inducer stimulus contrasts to reveal visual mechanisms behind attention and consciousness. Deviations relative to the standard CRF, i.e., gain functions, describe the strength of signal enhancement, which were assessed for both changes due to attentional task and conscious perception. It was found that attention displayed a response-gain function, whereas consciousness displayed a contrast-gain function. Through model comparisons, which only included contrast-gain modulations, both contrast-gain and response-gain effects can be explained with a two-level normalization model, in which consciousness affects only the first level and attention affects only the second level. These results demonstrate that attention and consciousness can effectively show different gain functions because they operate through different signal enhancement mechanisms.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The relationship between attention and consciousness is still debated. Mapping contrast response functions (CRFs) has allowed (neuro)scientists to gain important insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of visual processing. Here, the influence of both attention and consciousness on these functions were measured and they displayed a strong dissociation. First, attention lowered CRFs, whereas consciousness raised them. Second, attention manifests itself as a response-gain function, whereas consciousness manifests itself as a contrast-gain function. Extensive model comparisons show that these results are best explained in a two-level normalization model in which consciousness affects only the first level, whereas attention affects only the second level. These findings show dissociations between both the computational mechanisms behind attention and consciousness and the perceptual consequences that they induce.

Neural adaptation in pSTS correlates with perceptual aftereffects to biological motion and with autistic traits.

The adaptive nature of biological motion perception has been documented in behavioral studies, with research showing that prolonged viewing of an action can bias judgments of subsequent actions towards the opposite of its attributes. However, the neural mechanisms underlying action adaptation aftereffects remain unknown. We examined adaptation-induced changes in brain responses to an ambiguous action after adapting to walking or running actions within two bilateral regions of interest: 1) human middle temporal area (hMT+), a lower-level motion-sensitive region of cortex, and 2) posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), a higher-level action-selective area. We found a significant correlation between neural adaptation strength in right pSTS and perceptual aftereffects to biological motion measured behaviorally, but not in hMT+. The magnitude of neural adaptation in right pSTS was also strongly correlated with individual differences in the degree of autistic traits. Participants with more autistic traits exhibited less adaptation-induced modulations of brain responses in right pSTS and correspondingly weaker perceptual aftereffects. These results suggest a direct link between perceptual aftereffects and adaptation of neural populations in right pSTS after prolonged viewing of a biological motion stimulus, and highlight the potential importance of this brain region for understanding differences in social-cognitive processing along the autistic spectrum.

Joints and their relations as critical features in action discrimination: evidence from a classification image method.

Classifying an action as a runner or a walker is a seemingly effortless process. However, it is difficult to determine which features are used with hypothesis-driven research, because biological motion stimuli generally consist of about a dozen joints, yielding an enormous number of potential relationships among them. Here, we develop a hypothesis-free approach based on a classification image method, using experimental data from relatively few trials (∼1,000 trials per subject). Employing ambiguous actions morphed between a walker and a runner, we identified three types of features that play important roles in discriminating bipedal locomotion presented in a side view: (a) critical joint feature, supported by the finding that the similarity of the movements of feet and wrists to prototypical movements of these joints were most reliably used across all participants; (b) structural features, indicated by contributions from almost all other joints, potentially through a form-based analysis; and (c) relational features, revealed by statistical correlations between joint contributions, specifically relations between the two feet, and relations between the wrists/elbow and the hips. When the actions were inverted, only critical joint features remained to significantly influence discrimination responses. When actions were presented with continuous depth rotation, critical joint features and relational features associated strongly with responses. Using a double-pass paradigm, we estimated that the internal noise is about twice as large as the external noise, consistent with previous findings. Overall, our novel design revealed a rich set of critical features that are used in action discrimination. The visual system flexibly selects a subset of features depending on viewing conditions.

Stochastic resonance in the sensory systems and its applications in neural prosthetics.

Noise is generally considered to be detrimental. In the right conditions, however, noise can improve signal detection or information transmission. This counterintuitive phenomenon is called stochastic resonance (SR). SR has generated significant interdisciplinary interest, particularly in physics, engineering, and medical and environmental sciences. In this review, we discuss a growing empirical literature that suggests that noise at the right intensity may improve the detection and processing of auditory, sensorimotor, and visual stimuli. We focus particularly on applications of SR in sensory biology and investigate whether SR-based technologies present a pathway to improve outcomes for individuals living with sensory impairments. We conclude that there is considerable evidence supporting the application of SR in developing sensory prosthetics. However, the progression of SR-based technologies is variable across the sensory modalities. We suggest opportunities for further advancements in each modality, considering the best approaches to maximise benefits and capitalise on progress already made. Overall, SR can offer opportunities to improve existing technologies or to motivate innovations.

Opposing effects of attention and consciousness on afterimages.

The brain's ability to handle sensory information is influenced by both selective attention and consciousness. There is no consensus on the exact relationship between these two processes and whether they are distinct. So far, no experiment has simultaneously manipulated both. We carried out a full factorial 2 x 2 study of the simultaneous influences of attention and consciousness (as assayed by visibility) on perception, correcting for possible concurrent changes in attention and consciousness. We investigated the duration of afterimages for all four combinations of high versus low attention and visible versus invisible. We show that selective attention and visual consciousness have opposite effects: paying attention to the grating decreases the duration of its afterimage, whereas consciously seeing the grating increases the afterimage duration. These findings provide clear evidence for distinctive influences of selective attention and consciousness on visual perception.

A biological motion toolbox for reading, displaying, and manipulating motion capture data in research settings.

Biological motion research is an increasingly active field, with a great potential to contribute to a wide range of applications, such as behavioral monitoring/motion detection in surveillance situations, intention inference in social interactions, and diagnostic tools in autism research. In recent years, a large amount of motion capture data has become freely available online, potentially providing rich stimulus sets for biological motion research. However, there currently does not exist an easy-to-use tool to extract, present and manipulate motion capture data in the MATLAB environment, which many researchers use to program their experiments. We have developed the Biomotion Toolbox, which allows researchers to import motion capture data in a variety of formats, to display actions using Psychtoolbox 3, and to manipulate action displays in specific ways (e.g., inversion, three-dimensional rotation, spatial scrambling, phase-scrambling, and limited lifetime). The toolbox was designed to allow researchers with a minimal level of MATLAB programming skills to code experiments using biological motion stimuli.

Parallel programming of saccades during natural scene viewing: evidence from eye movement positions.

Previous studies have shown that saccade plans during natural scene viewing can be programmed in parallel. This evidence comes mainly from temporal indicators, i.e., fixation durations and latencies. In the current study, we asked whether eye movement positions recorded during scene viewing also reflect parallel programming of saccades. As participants viewed scenes in preparation for a memory task, their inspection of the scene was suddenly disrupted by a transition to another scene. We examined whether saccades after the transition were invariably directed immediately toward the center or were contingent on saccade onset times relative to the transition. The results, which showed a dissociation in eye movement behavior between two groups of saccades after the scene transition, supported the parallel programming account. Saccades with relatively long onset times (>100 ms) after the transition were directed immediately toward the center of the scene, probably to restart scene exploration. Saccades with short onset times (<100 ms) moved to the center only one saccade later. Our data on eye movement positions provide novel evidence of parallel programming of saccades during scene viewing. Additionally, results from the analyses of intersaccadic intervals were also consistent with the parallel programming hypothesis.

Does stochastic resonance improve performance for individuals with higher autism-spectrum quotient?

While noise is generally believed to impair performance, the detection of weak stimuli can sometimes be enhanced by introducing optimum noise levels. This phenomenon is termed 'Stochastic Resonance' (SR). Past evidence suggests that autistic individuals exhibit higher neural noise than neurotypical individuals. It has been proposed that the enhanced performance in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) on some tasks could be due to SR. Here we present a computational model, lab-based, and online visual identification experiments to find corroborating evidence for this hypothesis in individuals without a formal ASD diagnosis. Our modeling predicts that artificially increasing noise results in SR for individuals with low internal noise (e.g., neurotypical), however not for those with higher internal noise (e.g., autistic, or neurotypical individuals with higher autistic traits). It also predicts that at low stimulus noise, individuals with higher internal noise outperform those with lower internal noise. We tested these predictions using visual identification tasks among participants from the general population with autistic traits measured by the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ). While all participants showed SR in the lab-based experiment, this did not support our model strongly. In the online experiment, significant SR was not found, however participants with higher AQ scores outperformed those with lower AQ scores at low stimulus noise levels, which is consistent with our modeling. In conclusion, our study is the first to investigate the link between SR and superior performance by those with ASD-related traits, and reports limited evidence to support the high neural noise/SR hypothesis.

Drive in the Moment: An evaluation of a web-based tool designed to reduce smartphone use among young drivers.

OBJECTIVE: Young drivers are overrepresented in road traffic crashes and fatalities. Distracted driving, including use of a smartphone while driving (SWD), is a major risk factor for crashes for this age group. We evaluated a web-based tool (Drive in the Moment or DITM) designed to reduce SWD among young drivers. METHODS: A pretest-posttest experimental design with a follow-up was used to assess the efficacy of the DITM intervention on SWD intentions and behaviors, and perceived risk (of having a crash and of being apprehended by the police) associated with SWD. One hundred and eighty young drivers (aged 17-25 years old) were randomly assigned to either the DITM intervention or a control group where participants completed an unrelated activity. Self-reported measures of SWD and perceptions of risk were obtained pre-intervention, immediately post-intervention and at a follow-up 25 days after the intervention. RESULTS: Participants who engaged with the DITM showed a significant reduction in the number of times they used their SWD at follow-up compared to their pre-intervention scores. Future intentions to SWD were also reduced from pre-intervention to post-intervention and follow-up. There was also an increase in the perceived risk of SWD following the intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Our evaluation of DITM suggests that the intervention had an impact on reducing SWD among young drivers. Further research is needed to establish which particular elements of the DITM are associated with reductions in SWD and whether similar findings would be identified in other age groups.

Characterising modulatory effects of high-intensity high frequency transcranial random noise stimulation using the perceptual template model.

Neural noise is an inherent property of all nervous systems. However, our understanding of the mechanisms by which noise influences perception is still limited. To elucidate this relationship, we require techniques that can safely modulate noise in humans. Transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS) has been proposed to induce noise into cortical processing areas according to the principles of stochastic resonance (SR). Specifically, it has been demonstrated that small to moderate intensities of noise improve performance. To date, however, high intensity tRNS effects on neural noise levels have not been directly quantified, nor have the detrimental effects proposed by SR been demonstrated in early visual function. Here, we applied 3 mA high-frequency tRNS to primary visual cortex during an orientation-discrimination task across increasing external noise levels and used the Perceptual Template Model to quantify the mechanisms by which noise changes perceptual performance in healthy observers. Results show that, at a group level, high-intensity tRNS worsened perceptual performance. Our computational analysis reveals that this change in performance was underpinned by an increased amount of additive noise and a reduced ability to filter external noise compared to sham stimulation. Interestingly, while most observers experienced detrimental effects, a subset of participants demonstrated improved performance. Preliminary evidence suggests that differences in baseline internal noise levels might account for these individual differences. Together, these results refine our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the influence of neural noise on perception and have important implications for the application of tRNS as a research tool.

Visual rivalry without spatial conflict.

Visual rivalry has been extensively characterized in the literature. It is thought to require spatial conflict between overlapping visual presentations, even in studies that have found nonspatial (i.e., nonretinal) influences on rivalry. Unexpectedly, we identified visual rivalry in the complete absence of spatial conflict. Participants experienced visual rivalry when we placed a nonambiguous motion stimulus in a nonspatial (in our case, object-based) reference frame. Moreover, a stimulus that was displaced within a nonspatial reference frame did not induce rivalry despite the presence of spatial conflict. This finding shows that nonspatial, object-based processing can overrule retinotopic processing and prevent rivalry from occurring when a perceived stimulus exists unambiguously in an object-based reference frame. Our results identify a potent high-level conflict-resolution stage independent of low-level spatial visual conflict. This independence of spatial overlap provides an advantage to the visual system, allowing conflict resolution when an object is nonstationary on the retina (e.g., during frequently occurring eye movements).

Seeing faces where there are none: Pareidolia correlates with age but not autism traits.

Previous research has found that individuals with autism spectrum disorder experience difficulties when visually processing face stimuli compared to developmentally typical individuals. Whether, in the typically-developing population, face detection depends on autism-like traits (ALTs) is less clear. In this report, we aimed to develop an experimental design that is more sensitive to any individual differences in face detection than previous reports. We employed pareidolia, that is, cases where non-face stimuli are perceived to be faces, assuming this is more difficult than detection of 'real' faces, decreasing changes of ceiling performance. We also show multiple faces per trial, allowing for a more graded assessment of face detection ability. Participants were 263 individuals aged between 18 and 82 years of age. Pareidolia was investigated in two online experiments, with different types of stimuli: objects that could be perceived as faces (i.e., embedded faces task) and Mooney faces (Mooney face task). In the latter condition, we also investigated the face inversion effect. We found that neither detection ability or the inversion effect depended on ALTs. We did find a dependence of age for both measures, and a complex dependence on gender for Mooney faces. Our data suggest that face detection (and specifically pareidolia) does not depend on ALTs, but does depend on the age of the observer. The dependence on age appears to be different between the two experiments, suggesting that the underlying mechanisms necessary for face detection in our two experiments mature and decline at different rates.

Visual search by action category.

Humans are sensitive to different categories of actions due to their importance in social interactions. However, biological motion research has been heavily tilted toward the use of walking figures. Employing point-light animations (PLAs) derived from motion capture data, we investigated how different activities (boxing, dancing, running, and walking) related to each other during action perception, using a visual search task. We found that differentiating between actions requires attention in general. However, a search asymmetry was revealed between boxers and walkers, i.e., searching for a boxer among walkers is more efficient than searching for a walker among boxers, suggesting the existence of a critical feature for categorizing these two actions. The similarities among the various actions were derived from hierarchical clustering of search slopes. Walking and running proved to be most related, followed by dancing and then boxing. Signal detection theory was used to conduct a non-parametric ROC analysis, revealing that human performance in visual search is not fully explained by low-level motion information.

Multisensory congruency as a mechanism for attentional control over perceptual selection.

The neural mechanisms underlying attentional selection of competing neural signals for awareness remains an unresolved issue. We studied attentional selection, using perceptually ambiguous stimuli in a novel multisensory paradigm that combined competing auditory and competing visual stimuli. We demonstrate that the ability to select, and attentively hold, one of the competing alternatives in either sensory modality is greatly enhanced when there is a matching cross-modal stimulus. Intriguingly, this multimodal enhancement of attentional selection seems to require a conscious act of attention, as passively experiencing the multisensory stimuli did not enhance control over the stimulus. We also demonstrate that congruent auditory or tactile information, and combined auditory-tactile information, aids attentional control over competing visual stimuli and visa versa. Our data suggest a functional role for recently found neurons that combine voluntarily initiated attentional functions across sensory modalities. We argue that these units provide a mechanism for structuring multisensory inputs that are then used to selectively modulate early (unimodal) cortical processing, boosting the gain of task-relevant features for willful control over perceptual awareness.

A dissociation of attention and awareness in phase-sensitive but not phase-insensitive visual channels.

The elements most vivid in our conscious awareness are the ones to which we direct our attention. Scientific study confirms the impression of a close bond between selective attention and visual awareness, yet the nature of this association remains elusive. Using visual afterimages as an index, we investigate neural processing of stimuli as they enter awareness and as they become the object of attention. We find evidence of response enhancement accompanying both attention and awareness, both in the phase-sensitive neural channels characteristic of early processing stages and in the phase-insensitive channels typical of higher cortical areas. The effects of attention and awareness on phase-insensitive responses are positively correlated, but in the same experiments, we observe no correlation between the effects on phase-sensitive responses. This indicates independent signatures of attention and awareness in early visual areas yet a convergence of their effects at more advanced processing stages.

Motion-induced blindness as a tool to measure attentional biases and the link to attention-deficit/hyperactivity traits.

Typically, individuals have an attentional bias toward the left visual field. This is often absent in individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity (ADH) disorder (ADHD). We used a motion-induced blindness task with targets in 4 quadrants to assess left/right as well as upper/lower spatial biases in perceptual disappearances and also measured changes in the disappearances with time-on-task. Fifty-eight university students (41 female) completed the Conners Adult ADHD self-report short-form to assess the number of ADH traits, and 48 trials of a 1-min motion-induced blindness (MIB) task. Through a hybrid hypothesis-driven and data-driven analysis approach, we found that the MIB illusion increased with more ADH traits, decreased with time-on-task, and was stronger for left and lower quadrants. The time-on-task likely contributed to the strength of the illusion through changes in arousal, as pupil size decreased with time-on-trial in a subset of participants (n = 11) for whom we measure eye movements. In addition, although participants were biased toward the lower left visual field, this was, unexpectedly, most prominent with those with higher ADH traits. This novel result suggests an additive effect of left/right and upper/lower spatial biases. Taken together, this study supports an association between spatial attention, arousal and ADH traits in MIB. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Does It Matter Whether You or Your Brain Did It? An Empirical Investigation of the Influence of the Double Subject Fallacy on Moral Responsibility Judgments.

Despite progress in cognitive neuroscience, we are still far from understanding the relations between the brain and the conscious self. We previously suggested that some neuroscientific texts that attempt to clarify these relations may in fact make them more difficult to understand. Such texts-ranging from popular science to high-impact scientific publications-position the brain and the conscious self as two independent, interacting subjects, capable of possessing opposite psychological states. We termed such writing 'Double Subject Fallacy' (DSF). We further suggested that such DSF language, besides being conceptually confusing and reflecting dualistic intuitions, might affect people's conceptions of moral responsibility, lessening the perception of guilt over actions. Here, we empirically investigated this proposition with a series of three experiments (pilot and two preregistered replications). Subjects were presented with moral scenarios where the defendant was either (1) clearly guilty, (2) ambiguous, or (3) clearly innocent while the accompanying neuroscientific evidence about the defendant was presented using DSF or non-DSF language. Subjects were instructed to rate the defendant's guilt in all experiments. Subjects rated the defendant in the clearly guilty scenario as guiltier than in the two other scenarios and the defendant in the ambiguously described scenario as guiltier than in the innocent scenario, as expected. In Experiment 1 (N = 609), an effect was further found for DSF language in the expected direction: subjects rated the defendant less guilty when the neuroscientific evidence was described using DSF language, across all levels of culpability. However, this effect did not replicate in Experiment 2 (N = 1794), which focused on different moral scenario, nor in Experiment 3 (N = 1810), which was an exact replication of Experiment 1. Bayesian analyses yielded strong evidence against the existence of an effect of DSF language on the perception of guilt. Our results thus challenge the claim that DSF language affects subjects' moral judgments. They further demonstrate the importance of good scientific practice, including preregistration and-most critically-replication, to avoid reaching erroneous conclusions based on false-positive results.