Implementing neonatal screening for congenital cytomegalovirus: addressing the deafness of policy makers.

Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is an important public health problem with approximately 7 in 1,000 newborns infected and consequently at risk for hearing impairment. Newborn hearing screening will fail to detect this hearing impairment in approximately half of the cases because late onset hearing loss is frequent. Hearing impairment has profound impact on cognitive and social development of children and their families, determining most of the disease burden of congenital CMV infection. The potential value of newborn screening for congenital CMV is increasingly discussed. To date, many experts acknowledge the benefit of antiviral treatment in the prevention of hearing deterioration in newborns with neurological symptoms, and the benefit of early identification of late-onset hearing impairment by means of extensive audiological follow up of infected infants. These opinions imply that the potential of newborn screening for CMV would lie in the identification of the large proportion of asymptomatic congenitally infected newborns at risk for developing late-onset hearing loss. Experience with postnatal antiviral treatment of symptomatic newborns is encouraging, but has not been studied in asymptomatic congenitally infected newborns. A large-scale study on the safety and effectiveness of combined screening and antiviral therapy for congenital CMV infection is the necessary next step to take and should not be delayed.

Aging and impaired immunity to influenza viruses: implications for vaccine development.

Influenza infections are responsible for significant morbidity and mortality each year, with the highest infection rates found in the elderly population. The main strategy to reduce the impact of influenza infections in the elderly population is vaccination. However, the efficacy of influenza vaccines that are licensed for use in the elderly is relatively low (17-53%). The complex age-related changes that occur in both innate and adaptive immunity are thought to hamper the immune response to influenza immunization and to reduce protection against infection in the elderly. For the development of improved vaccines that overcome the limitations of an aged immune system, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms that lead to immune dysfunction. Here, we review the recent progress in unravelling the mechanisms behind the age-related immune dysfunction in elderly, as well as the recent developments in improving influenza vaccines and identification of new correlates of protection.

The 180 splice variant of NCAM-containing exon 18-is specifically expressed in small cell lung cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: The Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule (NCAM) is a glycoprotein expressed as 120, 140 and/or 180 kDa isoforms, all derived through alternative splicing of a single gene. NCAM 120 contains no intracellular domain, whereas NCAM 140 and 180 have different intracellular domains determined by alternative splicing of exon 18. NCAM has been described as a biomarker to discriminate small cell lung cancer (SCLC) from non-SCLC (NSCLC). However, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) also express NCAM. We studied the expression of NCAM splice variants in cell lines, tumor tissues and control cells. METHODS: Using reverse transcriptase-PCR we evaluated the expression of NCAM exon 18 splice variants in lung cancers cell lines, control cell lines, PBMC of healthy controls and SCLC tissue. In addition we studied the expression of the NCAM exon 18 encoded protein (E18) in SCLC by immunocytochemistry and flow cytometry using an E18-specific monoclonal antibody obtained by hybridoma fusion of E18-immunized mouse spleen cells. Finally we looked at immune responses to E18 in mice. RESULTS: We found expression of RNA encoding the NCAM 180 variant in all SCLC cell lines. NCAM exon 18 was not expressed in 23/28 (82%) of the other tumor and leukemia cell lines tested and PBMC. Next, we also evaluated the expression of NCAM exon 18 in human SCLC tissue. Expression of NCAM exon 18 in 8 of the 10 (80%) SCLC biopsy samples was found. The newly raised E18-specific antibodies stained NCAM at the adherent junctions between adjacent cells in SCLC cell lines. The data demonstrate the intracellular location of E18 in SCLC. Furthermore, a specific cytotoxic T cell (CTL) response and significant antibody titers were found in mice upon immunization with recombinant E18 and its encoding DNA. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study can be applied in the diagnosis and immunotherapy of SCLC. A larger study investigating E18 as a marker for SCLC is indicated.

An improved whole cell pertussis vaccine with reduced content of endotoxin.

An improved whole cell pertussis vaccine, designated as Plow, which is low in endotoxicity due to a chemical extraction of lipo-oligosaccharide (LOS) from the outer membrane, was evaluated for safety, immunogenicity and potency, comparatively to a traditional whole cell pertussis vaccine. Current whole cell pertussis vaccines are effective but contain large quantities of endotoxin and consequently display local and systemic adverse reactions after administration. Endotoxin is highly inflammatory and contributes considerably to the reactogenicity as well as the potency of these vaccines. In contrast, acellular pertussis vaccines hardly contain endotoxin and are significantly less reactogenic, but their elevated costs limit their global use, especially in developing countries. In this paper, bulk products of Plow and a traditional whole cell vaccine, formulated as plain monocomponents or combined with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids (DTPlow or DTP, respectively) were compared by in vitro and in vivo assays. Chemical extraction of LOS resulted in a significant decrease in endotoxin content (20%) and a striking decline in endotoxin related toxicity (up to 97%), depending on the used in vitro or in vivo test. The LOS extraction did not affect the integrity of the product and, more importantly, did not affect the potency and/or stability of DTPlow. Moreover, hardly any differences in antibody and T-cell responses were observed. The development of Plow is a significant improvement regarding the endotoxicity of whole cell pertussis vaccines and therefore a promising and affordable alternative to currently available whole cell or acellular pertussis vaccines for developing countries.

Impaired production of TNF-α by dendritic cells of older adults leads to a lower CD8+ T cell response against influenza.

Seasonal influenza causes more morbidity and mortality in older adults than in young adults, apparently because of a decline in immune function with increasing age, known as immunosenescence. In this study, we compared the capacity of dendritic cells (DCs) from healthy older adults (≥65 years) with DCs from healthy young adults (20-40 years) to initiate a T cell response against influenza. DCs from older adults were impaired in the induction of influenza-specific CD8+ T cells as compared to DCs from young adults, which was demonstrated by a decreased proliferation, an impaired production of IFN-γ and a reduced expression of the degranulation marker CD107a by CD8+ T cells. Importantly, DCs from older adults produced significantly less TNF-α, showed a decreased expression of HLA class I and had a lower maturation state after influenza virus infection. Supplementing TNF-α increased the expression of HLA class I and of maturation markers and enhanced the induction of the influenza-specific CD8+ T cell response. Together, these findings indicate that the impaired influenza-specific CD8+ T cell response in older adults is associated with a reduced production of TNF-α and with a lower DC maturation. We suggest that the production of TNF-α is a determining factor in the DC-mediated CD8+ T cell response against influenza.

Expression of Campylobacter hyoilei lipo-oligosaccharide (LOS) antigens in Escherichia coli.

Campylobacter spp. are well recognized as primary pathogens in animals and in people. To isolate and define the genetic regions encoding major surface antigens of Campylobacter hyoilei, genomic DNA of the type strain of the species, RMIT-32A, was cloned into a cosmid vector, pLA2917, in Escherichia coli and the resulting genomic library was screened using antiserum raised to the parent C. hyoilei strain. Six cosmid clones were found to express a series of immunoreactive bands in the 15-25 kDa range. These bands were proteinase K-resistant and were found in the LPS fraction of the cells, suggesting that the recombinant cosmids expressed C. hyoilei lipo-oligosaccharide (LOS) antigen(s). The minimum DNA insert size required for expression of C. hyoilei LOS antigen(s) in E. coli was 11.8 kb. This region was subcloned into the plasmid vector pBR322. The partial sequencing of the 11.8 kb region showed that it contains two ORFs, designated rfbF and rfbP, showing homology with the rfbF gene from Serratia marcescens and the rfbP gene from Salmonella typhimurium. Both genes are involved in LPS synthesis. The region also contained a sequence homologous to the rfaC gene of E. coli and Sal. typhimurium which is involved in core oligosaccharide synthesis.

A novel approach for the construction of a Campylobacter mutant library.

Given the lack of functional transposons for use in Campylobacter spp., an alternative method of insertional mutagenesis using natural transformation was developed. High efficiencies of transformation were only obtained with species-specific DNA. This feature was a key element in the construction of mutant libraries of this bacterium. A chromosomal library of Campylobacter jejuni 81116 DNA was made in shuttle vector pUOA18. Next, a kanamycin-resistance (KmR) cassette was ligated into the inserts of the plasmids. C. jejuni 81116 was then transformed with the resulting products to allow homologous recombination between genomic fragments present in the shuttle vector and the chromosome. Transformants were pooled and chromosomal DNA from these transformants was used to retransform C. jejuni 81116. This resulted in transformants containing the KmR cassette in the chromosome but lacking the vector. In order to evaluate this approach for the construction of a mutant bank, the KmR insertional mutants were screened for loss of motility. Partial characterization of 11 non-motile mutants indicated that the inserted genes are involved in motility. Four mutants had the KmR cassette inserted in genes involved in flagella biosynthesis, namely flaA/B, neuB and flgK, and produced incomplete or no flagella. Four mutants had the KmR cassette inserted in genes possibly involved in flagella motor function: pflA, fliM and orf1 downstream of the fliN gene. Three mutants had the KmR cassette inserted in genes that are homologous to genes encoding hypothetical proteins of Helicobacter pylori.

Genetic basis for the structural difference between Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 15B and 15C capsular polysaccharides.

In a search for the genetic basis for the structural difference between the related Streptococcus pneumoniae capsular serotypes 15B and 15C and for the reported reversible switching between these serotypes, the corresponding capsular polysaccharide synthesis (cps) loci were investigated by keeping in mind that at the structural level, the capsules differ only in O acetylation. The cps locus of a serotype 15B strain was identified, partially PCR amplified with primers based on the related serotype 14 sequence, and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed, among other open reading frames, an intact open reading frame (designated cps15bM) whose product, at the protein level, exhibited characteristics of previously identified acetyltransferases. Genetic analysis of the corresponding region in a serotype15C strain indicated that the same gene was present but had a premature stop in translation. Closer analysis indicated that the serotype 15B gene contained a short tandem TA repeat consisting of eight TA units. In serotype 15C, this gene contained nine TA units that resulted in a frameshift and a truncated product. Genetic analysis of 17 serotype 15B and 15C clinical isolates revealed a perfect correlation between the serotype and the length of the short tandem repeat in the putative O-acetyltransferase gene. The number of TA repeating units varied between seven and nine in the various isolates. Together, the data strongly suggest that the structural difference between serotypes 15B and 15C is based on variation in the short tandem TA repeat in the O-acetyltransferase gene and that the transition between serotypes is due to slipped-strand mispairing with deletion or insertion of TA units in the cps15bM gene.

Identification of genes affecting Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis infection of chicken macrophages.

Screening of 7,680 Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis mutants for attenuation in a chicken macrophage infection model yielded a series of mutants including several with defects in previously unrecognized Salmonella virulence genes. One of the newly identified genes was the pbpA2 gene, belonging to the penicillin binding protein gene family.

Organization and characterization of the capsule biosynthesis locus of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 9V.

The capsular polysaccharide (CPS) synthesis locus of Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 9V was amplified by long-range PCR and sequenced. The locus was 17368 bp in size and contained 15 ORFs. The genetic organization of the cluster shared many features with other S. pneumoniae capsule loci, including the presence of four putative regulatory genes at the 5' end. Comparative sequence analyses allowed putative functions to be assigned to each of the gene products. The ORFs appeared to encode, besides the four regulatory genes, five glycosyltransferases, two O-acetyltransferases, an N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase, a glucose 6-dehydrogenase, an oligosaccharide transporter protein and a polysaccharide repeating unit polymerase. These functions covered the steps proposed in the CPS biosynthesis of serotype 9V. TLC of carbohydrate intermediates formed after incubation of bacterial membrane preparations with 14C-labelled precursors demonstrated that the fifth ORF (cps9vE) encoded a UDP-glucosyl-1-phosphate transferase. This function was confirmed with the help of a cps9vE mutant that carried a deletion of a guanine residue located adjacent to a stretch of adenines. The identification and characterization of the serotype 9V locus is a major step in unravelling the 9V capsule biosynthesis pathway and broadens the insight into the genetic diversity of the S. pneumoniae capsule loci.

The lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis locus of Campylobacter jejuni 81116.

Most Campylobacter jejuni strains express lipo-oligosaccharides. Some strains also express lipopolysaccharides (LPS), with O-antigen-like carbohydrate repeats. C. jejuni 81116 expresses an LPS containing both lipo-oligosaccharides and O-antigen-like repeats, but nothing is known about the structure or sugar composition of these LPS species. A cosmid library of the genome of C. jejuni 81116 was constructed and probed with Campylobacter hyoilei genes involved in LPS synthesis. Five cosmids hybridized with the probe and two of these expressed C. jejuni 81116 LPS in Escherichia coli. By subcloning, a 16 kb DNA region was identified which contains the genetic information required to express C. jejuni LPS. DNA sequence analysis revealed 11 ORFs homologous to genes involved in LPS synthesis of other bacteria. They consisted of three homologues of sugar biosynthesis genes, two homologues of transport genes and six homologues of sugar transferases.