Chitin-Active Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenases Are Rare in Cellulomonas Species.

Cellulomonas flavigena is a saprotrophic bacterium that encodes, within its genome, four predicted lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) from Auxiliary Activity family 10 (AA10). We showed previously that three of these cleave the plant polysaccharide cellulose by oxidation at carbon-1 (J. Li, L. Solhi, E.D. Goddard-Borger, Y. Mattieu et al., Biotechnol Biofuels 14:29, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-020-01860-3). Here, we present the biochemical characterization of the fourth C. flavigena AA10 member (CflaLPMO10D) as a chitin-active LPMO. Both the full-length CflaLPMO10D-Carbohydrate-Binding Module family 2 (CBM2) and catalytic module-only proteins were produced in Escherichia coli using the native general secretory (Sec) signal peptide. To quantify chitinolytic activity, we developed a high-performance anion-exchange chromatography-pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD) method as an alternative to the established hydrophilic interaction liquid ion chromatography coupled with UV detection (HILIC-UV) method for separation and detection of released oxidized chito-oligosaccharides. Using this method, we demonstrated that CflaLPMO10D is strictly active on the ß-allomorph of chitin, with optimal activity at pH 5 to 6 and a preference for ascorbic acid as the reducing agent. We also demonstrated the importance of the CBM2 member for both mediating enzyme localization to substrates and prolonging LPMO activity. Together with previous work, the present study defines the distinct substrate specificities of the suite of C. flavigena AA10 members. Notably, a cross-genome survey of AA10 members indicated that chitinolytic LPMOs are, in fact, rare among Cellulomonas bacteria. IMPORTANCE Species from the genus Cellulomonas have a long history of study due to their roles in biomass recycling in nature and corresponding potential as sources of enzymes for biotechnological applications. Although Cellulomonas species are more commonly associated with the cleavage and utilization of plant cell wall polysaccharides, here, we show that C. flavigena produces a unique lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase with activity on ß-chitin, which is found, for example, in arthropods. The limited distribution of orthologous chitinolytic LPMOs suggests adaptation of individual cellulomonads to specific nutrient niches present in soil ecosystems. This research provides new insight into the biochemical specificity of LPMOs in Cellulomonas species and related bacteria, and it raises new questions about the physiological function of these enzymes.

Engineering chitinolytic activity into a cellulose-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase provides insights into substrate specificity.

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) catalyze oxidative cleavage of recalcitrant polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin and play an important role in the enzymatic degradation of biomass. Although it is clear that these monocopper enzymes have extended substrate-binding surfaces for interacting with their fibrous substrates, the structural determinants of LPMO substrate specificity remain largely unknown. To gain additional insight into substrate specificity in LPMOs, here we generated a mutant library of a cellulose-active family AA10 LPMO from Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) (ScLPMO10C, also known as CelS2) having multiple substitutions at five positions on the substrate-binding surface that we identified by sequence comparisons. Screening of this library using a newly-developed MS-based high-throughput assay helped identify multiple enzyme variants that contained four substitutions and exhibited significant chitinolytic activity and a concomitant decrease in cellulolytic activity. The chitin-active variants became more rapidly inactivated during catalysis than a natural chitin-active AA10 LPMO, an observation likely indicative of suboptimal substrate binding leading to autocatalytic oxidative damage of these variants. These results reveal several structural determinants of LPMO substrate specificity and underpin the notion that productive substrate binding by these enzymes is complex, depending on a multitude of amino acids located on the substrate-binding surface.

Identification and characterization of chitinolytic bacteria isolated from a freshwater lake.

To develop a novel type of biocontrol agent, we focus on bacteria that are characterized by both chitinase activity and biofilm development. Chitinolytic bacteria were isolated from sediments and chitin flakes immersed in the water of a sand dune lake, Sakata, in Niigata, Japan. Thirty-one isolates from more than 5100 isolated strains were examined chitinase activity and biofilm formation. Phylogenetic analysis of these isolates based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that most isolates belonged to the family Aeromonadaceae, followed by Paenibacillaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, and Neisseriaceae. The specific activity of chitinase of four selected strains was higher than that of a reference strain. The molecular size of one chitinase produced by Andreprevotia was greater than that of typical bacterial chitinases. The dialyzed culture supernatant containing chitinases of the four strains suppressed hyphal growth of Trichoderma reesei. These results indicate that these four strains are good candidates for biocontrol agents.

A C4-oxidizing lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase cleaving both cellulose and cello-oligosaccharides.

Lignocellulosic biomass is a renewable resource that significantly can substitute fossil resources for the production of fuels, chemicals, and materials. Efficient saccharification of this biomass to fermentable sugars will be a key technology in future biorefineries. Traditionally, saccharification was thought to be accomplished by mixtures of hydrolytic enzymes. However, recently it has been shown that lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) contribute to this process by catalyzing oxidative cleavage of insoluble polysaccharides utilizing a mechanism involving molecular oxygen and an electron donor. These enzymes thus represent novel tools for the saccharification of plant biomass. Most characterized LPMOs, including all reported bacterial LPMOs, form aldonic acids, i.e., products oxidized in the C1 position of the terminal sugar. Oxidation at other positions has been observed, and there has been some debate concerning the nature of this position (C4 or C6). In this study, we have characterized an LPMO from Neurospora crassa (NcLPMO9C; also known as NCU02916 and NcGH61-3). Remarkably, and in contrast to all previously characterized LPMOs, which are active only on polysaccharides, NcLPMO9C is able to cleave soluble cello-oligosaccharides as short as a tetramer, a property that allowed detailed product analysis. Using mass spectrometry and NMR, we show that the cello-oligosaccharide products released by this enzyme contain a C4 gemdiol/keto group at the nonreducing end.

Heterologous Expression and Biochemical Characterization of a Novel Lytic Polysaccharide Monooxygenase from Chitinilyticum aquatile CSC-1.

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are copper-dependent enzymes that catalyze the oxidative cleavage of recalcitrant polysaccharides. There are limited reports on LPMOs capable of concurrently catalyzing the oxidative cleavage of both cellulose and chitin. In this study, we identified and cloned a novel LPMO from the newly isolated bacterium Chitinilyticum aquatile CSC-1, designated as CaLPMO10. When using 2, 6-dimethylphenol (2, 6-DMP) as the substrate, CaLPMO10 exhibited optimal activity at 50 °C and pH 8, demonstrating good temperature stability at 30 °C. Even after a 6 h incubation at pH 8 and 30 °C, CaLPMO10 retained approximately 83.03 ± 1.25% residual enzyme activity. Most metal ions were found to enhance the enzyme activity of CaLPMO10, with ascorbic acid identified as the optimal reducing agent. Mass spectrometry analysis indicated that CaLPMO10 displayed oxidative activity towards both chitin and cellulose, identifying it as a C1/C4-oxidized LPMO. CaLPMO10 shows promise as a key enzyme for the efficient utilization of biomass resources in future applications.

The crystal structure of CbpD clarifies substrate-specificity motifs in chitin-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa secretes diverse proteins via its type 2 secretion system, including a 39 kDa chitin-binding protein, CbpD. CbpD has recently been shown to be a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase active on chitin and to contribute substantially to virulence. To date, no structure of this virulence factor has been reported. Its first two domains are homologous to those found in the crystal structure of Vibrio cholerae GbpA, while the third domain is homologous to the NMR structure of the CBM73 domain of Cellvibrio japonicus CjLPMO10A. Here, the 3.0 Šresolution crystal structure of CbpD solved by molecular replacement is reported, which required ab initio models of each CbpD domain generated by the artificial intelligence deep-learning structure-prediction algorithm RoseTTAFold. The structure of CbpD confirms some previously reported substrate-specificity motifs among LPMOAA10s, while challenging the predictive power of others. Additionally, the structure of CbpD shows that post-translational modifications occur on the chitin-binding surface. Moreover, the structure raises interesting possibilities about how type 2 secretion-system substrates may interact with the secretion machinery and demonstrates the utility of new artificial intelligence protein structure-prediction algorithms in making challenging structural targets tractable.

Four cellulose-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases from Cellulomonas species.

BACKGROUND: The discovery of lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) has fundamentally changed our understanding of microbial lignocellulose degradation. Cellulomonas bacteria have a rich history of study due to their ability to degrade recalcitrant cellulose, yet little is known about the predicted LPMOs that they encode from Auxiliary Activity Family 10 (AA10). RESULTS: Here, we present the comprehensive biochemical characterization of three AA10 LPMOs from Cellulomonas flavigena (CflaLPMO10A, CflaLPMO10B, and CflaLPMO10C) and one LPMO from Cellulomonas fimi (CfiLPMO10). We demonstrate that these four enzymes oxidize insoluble cellulose with C1 regioselectivity and show a preference for substrates with high surface area. In addition, CflaLPMO10B, CflaLPMO10C, and CfiLPMO10 exhibit limited capacity to perform mixed C1/C4 regioselective oxidative cleavage. Thermostability analysis indicates that these LPMOs can refold spontaneously following denaturation dependent on the presence of copper coordination. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed substrate-specific surface and structural morphological changes following LPMO action on Avicel and phosphoric acid-swollen cellulose (PASC). Further, we demonstrate that the LPMOs encoded by Cellulomonas flavigena exhibit synergy in cellulose degradation, which is due in part to decreased autoinactivation. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results advance understanding of the cellulose utilization machinery of historically important Cellulomonas species beyond hydrolytic enzymes to include lytic cleavage. This work also contributes to the broader mapping of enzyme activity in Auxiliary Activity Family 10 and provides new biocatalysts for potential applications in biomass modification.

Unraveling the roles of the reductant and free copper ions in LPMO kinetics.

BACKGROUND: Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are monocopper enzymes that catalyze oxidative depolymerization of industrially relevant crystalline polysaccharides, such as cellulose, in a reaction that depends on an electron donor and O2 or H2O2. While it is well known that LPMOs can utilize a wide variety of electron donors, the variation in reported efficiencies of various LPMO-reductant combinations remains largely unexplained. RESULTS: In this study, we describe a novel two-domain cellulose-active family AA10 LPMO from a marine actinomycete, which we have used to look more closely at the effects of the reductant and copper ions on the LPMO reaction. Our results show that ascorbate-driven LPMO reactions are extremely sensitive to very low amounts (micromolar concentrations) of free copper because reduction of free Cu(II) ions by ascorbic acid leads to formation of H2O2, which speeds up the LPMO reaction. In contrast, the use of gallic acid yields steady reactions that are almost insensitive to the presence of free copper ions. Various experiments, including dose-response studies with the enzyme, showed that under typically used reaction conditions, the rate of the reaction is limited by LPMO-independent formation of H2O2 resulting from oxidation of the reductant. CONCLUSION: The strong impact of low amounts of free copper on LPMO reactions with ascorbic acid and O2, i.e. the most commonly used conditions when assessing LPMO activity, likely explains reported variations in LPMO rates. The observed differences between ascorbic acid and gallic acid show a way of making LPMO reactions less copper-dependent and illustrate that reductant effects on LPMO action need to be interpreted with great caution. In clean reactions, with minimized generation of H2O2, the (O2-driven) LPMO reaction is exceedingly slow, compared to the much faster peroxygenase reaction that occurs when adding H2O2.

An actinobacteria lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase acts on both cellulose and xylan to boost biomass saccharification.

BACKGROUND: Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) opened a new horizon for biomass deconstruction. They use a redox mechanism not yet fully understood and the range of substrates initially envisaged to be the crystalline polysaccharides is steadily expanding to non-crystalline ones. RESULTS: The enzyme KpLPMO10A from the actinomycete Kitasatospora papulosa was cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli cells in the functional form with native N-terminal. The enzyme can release oxidized species from chitin (C1-type oxidation) and cellulose (C1/C4-type oxidation) similarly to other AA10 members from clade II (subclade A). Interestingly, KpLPMO10A also cleaves isolated xylan (not complexed with cellulose, C4-type oxidation), a rare activity among LPMOs not described yet for the AA10 family. The synergistic effect of KpLPMO10A with Celluclast® and an endo-ß-1,4-xylanase also supports this finding. The crystallographic elucidation of KpLPMO10A at 1.6 Å resolution along with extensive structural analyses did not indicate any evident difference with other characterized AA10 LPMOs at the catalytic interface, tempting us to suggest that these enzymes might also be active on xylan or that the ability to attack both crystalline and non-crystalline substrates involves yet obscure mechanisms of substrate recognition and binding. CONCLUSIONS: This work expands the spectrum of substrates recognized by AA10 family, opening a new perspective for the understanding of the synergistic effect of these enzymes with canonical glycoside hydrolases to deconstruct ligno(hemi)cellulosic biomass.

Fast purification method of functional LPMOs from Streptomyces ambofaciens by affinity adsorption.

A simple purification method by affinity adsorption was developed to obtain functional lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs). The system allows the successful purification to homogeneity of the most characterized bacterial LPMO, CBP21 from Serratia marcescens, and two LPMOs from Streptomyces ambofaciens, which have not been previously characterized. The first of these new LPMOs, named SamLPMO10B is a small enzyme (15 kDa) belonging to family 10 of auxiliary activities (AA10), showing activity on ß-chitin. The second LPMO, SamLPMO10C (34.7 kDa), is a bimodular enzyme comprised of an AA10 catalytic module and a carbohydrate binding module of family CBM2. SamLPMO10C shows activity on cellulosic substrates, including agricultural fiber paper pulps. The methodology developed simplifies the purification process to a binding-elution protocol with low-grade polysaccharides including Avicel. The strategy can be a cheap, simple and fast solution for the purification of LPMOs for industrial applications, leaving out periplasmic fractionation from recombinant strains therefore, with reduction of time and costs compared to conventional processes. The activity of SamLPMO10C expands the potential of the high valued LPMOs in lignocellulosic biomass valorization, reaffirming their promising role in cellulose deconstruction.

Chemical shift assignments for the apo-form of the catalytic domain, the linker region, and the carbohydrate-binding domain of the cellulose-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase ScLPMO10C.

The apo-form of the 21.4 kDa catalytic domain and the 10.7 kDa carbohydrate binding domain of the AA10 family lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase ScLPMO10C from Streptomyces coelicolor have been isotopically labeled and recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli. In this paper, we report the 1H, 13C, and 15N chemical shift assignments of each individual domain as well as an ensemble of the assignment for the full-length protein, including its approximately 30-amino acid long linker.

Structural and functional characterization of a small chitin-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase domain of a multi-modular chitinase from Jonesia denitrificans.

Lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) boost enzymatic depolymerization of recalcitrant polysaccharides, such as chitin and cellulose. We have studied a chitin-active LPMO domain (JdLPMO10A) that is considerably smaller (15.5 kDa) than all structurally characterized LPMOs so far and that is part of a modular protein containing a GH18 chitinase. The 1.55 Å resolution structure revealed deletions of interacting loops that protrude from the core ß-sandwich scaffold in larger LPMO10s. Despite these deletions, the enzyme is active on alpha- and beta-chitin, and the chitin-binding surface previously described for larger LPMOs is fully conserved. JdLPMO10A may represent a minimal scaffold needed to catalyse the powerful LPMO reaction.

Listeria monocytogenes has a functional chitinolytic system and an active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase.

Chitinases and chitin-active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are most commonly associated with chitin metabolism, but are also reported as virulence factors in pathogenic bacteria. Listeria monocytogenes, a well-known virulent bacterium, possesses two chitinases (ChiA and ChiB) and a multi-modular lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase (LmLPMO10). These enzymes have been related to virulence and their role in chitin metabolism is poorly understood. It is thus of interest to functionally characterize the individual enzymes in order to shed light on their roles in vivo. Our results demonstrate that L. monocytogenes has a fully functional chitinolytic system. Both chitinases show substrate degradation rates similar to those of the nonprocessive endo-chitinase SmChiC from Serratia marcescens. Compared to the S. marcescens LPMO chitin-binding protein CBP21, LmLPMO10 shows a similar rate but different product profiles depending on the substrate. In LPMO-chitinase synergy experiments, CBP21 is able to boost the activity of both ChiA and ChiB more than LmLPMO10. Product analysis of the synergy assays revealed that the chitinases were unable to efficiently hydrolyse the LPMO products (chitooligosaccharide aldonic acids) with a degree of polymerization below four (ChiA and SmChiC) or three (ChiB). Gene transcription and protein expression analysis showed that LmLPMO10 is neither highly transcribed, nor abundantly secreted during the growth of L. monocytogenes in a chitin-containing medium. The chitinases on the other hand are both abundantly secreted in the presence of chitin. Although LmLPMO10 is shown to promote chitin degradation in tandem with the chitinases in vitro, the secretome and transcription data question whether this is the primary role of LmLPMO10 in vivo.

Activation of enzymatic chitin degradation by a lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase.

For decades, the enzymatic conversion of recalcitrant polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin was thought to solely rely on the synergistic action of hydrolytic enzymes, but recent work has shown that lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) are important contributors to this process. Here, we have examined the initial rate enhancement an LPMO (CBP21) has on the hydrolytic enzymes (ChiA, ChiB, and ChiC) of the chitinolytic machinery of Serratia marcescens through determinations of apparent k(cat) (k(cat)(app)) values on a ß-chitin substrate. k(cat)(app) values were determined to be 1.7±0.1 s(-1) and 1.7±0.1 s(-1) for the exo-active ChiA and ChiB, respectively and 1.2±0.1 s(-1) for the endo-active ChiC. The addition of CBP21 boosted the k(cat)(app) values of ChiA and ChiB giving values of 11.1±1.5 s(-1) and 13.9±1.4 s(-1), while there was no effect on ChiC (0.9±0.1 s(-1)).

A small lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase from Streptomyces griseus targeting α- and ß-chitin.

The lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) have received considerable attention subsequent to their discovery because of their ability to boost the enzymatic conversion of recalcitrant polysaccharides. In the present study, we describe the enzymatic properties of SgLPMO10F, a small (15 kDa) auxilliary activity (AA) family 10 LPMO from Streptomyces griseus belonging to a clade of the phylogenetic tree without any characterized representative. The protein was expressed using a Brevibacillus-based expression system that had not been used previously for LPMO expression and that also ensures correct processing of the N-terminus crucial for LPMO activity. The enzyme was active towards both α- and ß-chitin and showed stronger binding and a greater release of soluble oxidized products for the latter allomorph. In chitinase synergy assays, however, SgLPMO10F worked slightly better for α-chitin, increasing chitin solubilization yields by up to 30-fold and 20-fold for α- and ß-chitin, respectively. Synergy experiments with various chitinases showed that the addition of SgLPMO10F leads to a substantial increase in the (GlcNAc)2 :GlcNAc product ratio, in reactions with α-chitin only. This underpins the structural differences between the substrates and also shows that, on α-chitin, SgLPMO10F affects the binding mode and/or degree of processivity of the chitinases tested. Variation in the only exposed aromatic residue in the substrate-binding surface of LPMO10s has previously been linked to preferential binding for α-chitin (exposed Trp) or ß-chitin (exposed Tyr). Mutation of this residue, Tyr56, in SgLPMO10F to Trp had no detectable effect on substrate-binding preferences but, in synergy experiments, the mutant appeared to be more efficient on α-chitin.

Evolution of substrate specificity in bacterial AA10 lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the diversity of lignocellulose-degrading enzymes in nature will provide insights for the improvement of cellulolytic enzyme cocktails used in the biofuels industry. Two families of enzymes, fungal AA9 and bacterial AA10, have recently been characterized as crystalline cellulose or chitin-cleaving lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs). Here we analyze the sequences, structures, and evolution of LPMOs to understand the factors that may influence substrate specificity both within and between these enzyme families. RESULTS: Comparative analysis of sequences, solved structures, and homology models from AA9 and AA10 LPMO families demonstrated that, although these two LPMO families are highly conserved, structurally they have minimal sequence similarity outside the active site residues. Phylogenetic analysis of the AA10 family identified clades with putative chitinolytic and cellulolytic activities. Estimation of the rate of synonymous versus non-synonymous substitutions (dN/dS) within two major AA10 subclades showed distinct selective pressures between putative cellulolytic genes (subclade A) and CBP21-like chitinolytic genes (subclade D). Estimation of site-specific selection demonstrated that changes in the active sites were strongly negatively selected in all subclades. Furthermore, all codons in the subclade D had dN/dS values of less than 0.7, whereas codons in the cellulolytic subclade had dN/dS values of greater than 1.5. Positively selected codons were enriched at sites localized on the surface of the protein adjacent to the active site. CONCLUSIONS: The structural similarity but absence of significant sequence similarity between AA9 and AA10 families suggests that these enzyme families share an ancient ancestral protein. Combined analysis of amino acid sites under Darwinian selection and structural homology modeling identified a subclade of AA10 with diversifying selection at different surfaces, potentially used for cellulose-binding and protein-protein interactions. Together, these data indicate that AA10 LPMOs are under selection to change their function, which may optimize cellulolytic activity. This work provides a phylogenetic basis for identifying and classifying additional cellulolytic or chitinolytic LPMOs.

A rapid quantitative activity assay shows that the Vibrio cholerae colonization factor GbpA is an active lytic polysaccharide monooxygenase.

The discovery of the copper-dependent lytic polysaccharide monooxygenases (LPMOs) has revealed new territory for chemical and biochemical analysis. These unique mononuclear copper enzymes are abundant, suggesting functional diversity beyond their established roles in the depolymerization of biomass polysaccharides. At the same time basic biochemical methods for characterizing LPMOs, such as activity assays are not well developed. Here we describe a method for quantification of C1-oxidized chitooligosaccharides (aldonic acids), and hence LPMO activity. The method was used to quantify the activity of a four-domain LPMO from Vibriocholerae, GbpA, which is a virulence factor with no obvious role in biomass processing.