Effect of Arthrospira maxima Phycobiliproteins, Rosiglitazone, and 17ß-Estradiol on Lipogenic and Inflammatory Gene Expression during 3T3-L1 Preadipocyte Cell Differentiation.

The study evaluated the effects of Arthrospira maxima phycobiliproteins (PBPs), rosiglitazone (RSG), and 17ß-estradiol (E) on the differentiation process of 3T3-L1 cells and on their regulation of lipogenic and inflammatory gene expression at different stages of the process. The results showed that phycobiliproteins promoted cell proliferation after 24 h of treatment. Furthermore, for all three treatments, the regulation of the highest number of markers occurred on days 6 and 12 of differentiation, regardless of when the treatment was applied. Phycobiliproteins reduced lipid droplet accumulation on days 3, 6, 10, and 13 of the adipogenic process, while rosiglitazone showed no differences compared to the control. On day 6, both phycobiliproteins and rosiglitazone positively regulated Acc1 mRNA. Meanwhile, all three treatments negatively regulated Pparγ and C/ebpα. Phycobiliproteins and estradiol also negatively regulated Ucp1 and Glut4 mRNAs. Rosiglitazone and estradiol, on the other hand, negatively regulated Ppara and Il-6 mRNAs. By day 12, phycobiliproteins and rosiglitazone upregulated Pparγ mRNA and negatively regulated Tnfα and Il-1ß. Additionally, phycobiliproteins and estradiol positively regulated Il-6 and negatively regulated Ppara, Ucp2, Acc1, and Glut4. Rosiglitazone and estradiol upregulate C/ebpα and Ucp1 mRNAs. The regulation exerted by phycobiliproteins on the mRNA expression of the studied markers was dependent on the phase of cell differentiation. The results of this study highlight that phycobiliproteins have an anti-adipogenic and anti-inflammatory effect by reducing the expression of adipogenic, lipogenic, and inflammatory genes in 3T3-L1 cells at different stages of the differentiation process.

Identification of Antioxidative Peptides Derived from Arthrospira maxima in the Biorefinery Process after Extraction of C-Phycocyanin and Lipids.

Arthrospira maxima has been identified as a sustainable source of rich proteins with diverse functionalities and bioactivities. After extracting C-phycocyanin (C-PC) and lipids in a biorefinery process, the spent biomass still contains a large proportion of proteins with potential for biopeptide production. In this study, the residue was digested using Papain, Alcalase, Trypsin, Protamex 1.6, and Alcalase 2.4 L at different time intervals. The resulting hydrolyzed product with the highest antioxidative activity, evaluated through their scavenging capability of hydroxyl radicals, superoxide anion, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), was selected for further fractionation and purification to isolate and identify biopeptides. Alcalase 2.4 L was found to produce the highest antioxidative hydrolysate product after four-hour hydrolysis. Fractionating this bioactive product using ultrafiltration obtained two fractions with different molecular weights (MW) and antioxidative activity. The low-molecular-weight fraction (LMWF) with MW <3 kDa had higher DPPH scavenging activity with the IC50 value of 2.97 ± 0.33 compared to 3.76 ± 0.15 mg/mL of the high-molecular-weight fraction (HMWF) with MW >3 kDa. Two stronger antioxidative fractions (F-A and F-B) with the respective significant lower IC50 values of 0.83 ± 0.22 and 1.52 ± 0.29 mg/mL were isolated from the LMWF using gel filtration with a Sephadex G-25 column. Based on LC-MS/MS analysis of the F-A, 230 peptides derived from 108 A. maxima proteins were determined. Notably, different antioxidative peptides possessing various bioactivities, including antioxidation, were detected with high predicted scores together with in silico analyses on their stability and toxicity. This study established knowledge and technology to further value-add to the spent A. maxima biomass by optimizing hydrolysis and fraction processes to produce antioxidative peptides with Alcalase 2.4 L after two products already produced in a biorefinery. These bioactive peptides have potential applications in food and nutraceutical products.

Hypolipidemic Effect of Arthrospira (Spirulina) maxima Supplementation and a Systematic Physical Exercise Program in Overweight and Obese Men: A Double-Blind, Randomized, and Crossover Controlled Trial.

Low-fat diets, lipid-modifying nutraceuticals and a higher level of physical activity are often recommended to reduce dyslipidemia. A double-blind, randomized, crossover, controlled trial was designed to evaluate the independent and synergistic effects of Arthrospira (Spirulina) maxima supplementation (4.5 g·day-1) with or without performing a physical exercise program (PEP: aerobic exercise (3 days·week-1) + high-intensity interval training (2 days·week-1)) on blood lipids and BMI of 52 sedentary men with excess body weight. During six weeks, all participants were assigned to four intervention treatments (Spirulina maxima with PEP (SE), placebo with PEP (Ex), Spirulina maxima without PEP (Sm), placebo without PEP (C; control)) and plasma lipids were evaluated spectrophotometrically pre- vs. post intervention in stratified subgroups (overweight, obese and dyslipidemic subjects). Pre/post comparisons showed significant reductions in all plasma lipids in the SE group, particularly in those with dyslipidemia (p ≤ 0.043). Comparing the final vs. the initial values, BMI, total cholesterol, triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol were decreased. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased in all treatment groups compared to C. Changes were observed mostly in SE interventions, particularly in dyslipidemic subjects (p < 0.05). Spirulina maxima supplementation enhances the hypolipidemic effect of a systematic PEP in men with excess body weight and dyslipidemia.

Spirulina maxima Decreases Endothelial Damage and Oxidative Stress Indicators in Patients with Systemic Arterial Hypertension: Results from Exploratory Controlled Clinical Trial.

(1) Background: Spirulina (Arthrospira) maxima has shown beneficial effects such as being anti-dyslipidemic, antiviral, antioxidant and antihypertensive. However, there are few and limited clinical studies. (2) Methods: a prospective, randomized, parallel pilot study of 4.5 g administration of Spirulina maxima or placebo for 12 weeks in 16 patients with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) undergoing treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors was performed to assess the effects on endothelial damage and oxidative stress indicators. The blood levels of sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, endothelin-1, and sE-selectin were quantified; the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and concentrations of reduced glutathione, oxidized glutathione, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, were also quantified before and after the treatment period. (3) Results: There were statistically significant (p < 0.05) decreases in systolic blood pressure, sVCAM-1, sE-selectin and endothelin-1 levels, and increases in glutathione peroxidase activity and oxidized glutathione levels. (4) Conclusion: The effects found in the present study agree with antihypertensive and antioxidant effects previously reported for Spirulina maxima. However, this is the first report about the effects on indicators of endothelial damage. More research in this field is necessary to gain an insight into the effects of Spirulina on these indicators.

The Oxygen quantum yield in diverse algae and cyanobacteria is controlled by partitioning of flux between linear and cyclic electron flow within photosystem II.

We have measured flash-induced oxygen quantum yields (O2-QYs) and primary charge separation (Chl variable fluorescence yield, Fv/Fm) in vivo among phylogenetically diverse microalgae and cyanobacteria. Higher O2-QYs can be attained in cells by releasing constraints on charge transfer at the Photosystem II (PSII) acceptor side by adding membrane-permeable benzoquinone (BQ) derivatives that oxidize plastosemiquinone QB(-) and QBH2. This method allows uncoupling PSII turnover from its natural regulation in living cells, without artifacts of isolating PSII complexes. This approach reveals different extents of regulation across species, controlled at the QB(-) acceptor site. Arthrospira maxima is confirmed as the most efficient PSII-WOC (water oxidizing complex) and exhibits the least regulation of flux. Thermosynechococcus elongatus exhibits an O2-QY of 30%, suggesting strong downregulation. WOC cycle simulations with the most accurate model (VZAD) show that a light-driven backward transition (net addition of an electron to the WOC, distinct from recombination) occurs in up to 25% of native PSIIs in the S2 and S3 states, while adding BQ prevents backward transitions and increases the lifetime of S2 and S3 by 10-fold. Backward transitions occur in PSIIs that have plastosemiquinone radicals in the QB site and are postulated to be physiologically regulated pathways for storing light energy as proton gradient through direct PSII-cyclic electron flow (PSII-CEF). PSII-CEF is independent of classical PSI/cyt-b6f-CEF and provides an alternative proton translocation pathway for energy conversion. PSII-CEF enables variable fluxes between linear and cyclic electron pathways, thus accommodating species-dependent needs for redox and ion-gradient energy sources powered by a single photosystem.

Optimization of production of C-phycocyanin and extracellular polymeric substances by Arthrospira sp.

The key factors influencing the production of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) and extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) by photoautotrophic culture of Arthrospira sp. were optimized using Taguchi method. Six factors were varied at either three or two levels as follows: light intensity at three levels; three initial culture pHs; two species of Arthrospira; three concentrations of Zarrouk's medium; three rates of aeration of the culture with air mixed with 2% v/v carbon dioxide; and two incubation temperatures. All cultures ran for 14 days. The optimal conditions for the production of C-PC and EPS were different. For both products, the best cyanobacterium proved to be Arthrospira maxima IFRPD1183. The production of C-PC was maximized with the following conditions: a light intensity of 68 µmol photons m-2 s-1 (a diurnal cycle of 16-h photoperiod and 8-h dark period), an initial pH of 10, the full strength (100%) Zarrouk's culture medium, an aeration rate of 0.6 vvm (air mixed with 2% v/v CO2) and a culture temperature of 30 °C. The concentration of Zarrouk's medium was the most important factor influencing the final concentration of C-PC. The optimal conditions for maximal production of EPS were as follows: a light intensity of 203 µmol photons m-2 s-1 with the earlier specified light-dark cycle; an initial pH of 9.5; a 50% strength of Zarrouk's medium; an aeration rate of 0.2 vvm (air mixed with 2% v/v CO2); and a temperature of 35 °C. Production of C-PC and EPS in raceway ponds is discussed.

Evaluation of the functional properties of a protein isolate from Arthrospira maxima and its application in a meat sausage.

Arthrospira maxima is a microalga that has been collected in Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico since pre-Hispanic times and has been a traditional food source due to its high biomass production and protein content (50-60 %), making it promising for protein extraction. In this context, a protein isolate was obtained from powdered biomass of Arthrospira maxima (PbAm) by alkaline solubilization (pH 11) and isoelectric precipitation (pH 4.2). Arthrospira maxima protein isolate (AmPI) presented higher protein content (82.58 %) and total amino acids compared to PbAm. Functional properties of AmPI were evaluated in comparison with PbAm and soy protein isolate (SPI). Protein extraction resulted in a significant increase in protein solubility (PS) and foaming capacity (FC) of up to 87.78 % and 238.10 %, respectively. Emulsifying capacity (EC) of AmPI was superior to that of PbAm and SPI in pH range 5-7. Inclusion of AmPI as a partial substitute for SPI in the formulation of meat sausages was evaluated by implementing four treatments: T1 (15 % AmPI, 85 % SPI), T2 (10 % AmPI, 90 % SPI), T3 (5 % AmPI, 95 % SPI) and T4 (0 % AmPI, 100 % SPI). Although the texture attributes remained unchanged, a significant reduction in color parameters was observed as the concentration of AmPI increased. An inclusion of 15 % AmPI significantly enhanced the nutritional quality of meat sausages. Results highlight the excellent properties of AmPI, confirming Arthrospira maxima as a promising protein source in the food industry.

Effect of hot water extracts of Arthrospira maxima (spirulina) against respiratory syncytial virus.

BACKGROUND: Spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) hot water extracts such as calcium spirulan (Ca-SP) have demonstrated antiviral effects against herpes simplex virus (HSV), human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), and influenza virus infections. There is no prior evidence suggesting the anti-viral activity of the spirulina hot water extract against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). PURPOSE: There are currently no effective antivirals available to treat RSV infection. Therefore, the development of safe and novel anti-RSV drugs is urgent and necessary. The aim of this work was to demonstrate the anti-RSV activity of spirulina hot water extracts and determine the potential mechanism of action. METHODS: Cytotoxicity and anti-RSV activity of spirulina hot water extracts were measured using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and neutralization assays, respectively. Potential mechanisms and components were assessed using time of addition, attachment, internalization, pull-down assays, and composition analysis. RESULTS: The polysaccharide-enriched high-molecular weight fraction (>100 kDa, SHD1) had a high total sugar content, with rhamnose accounting for approximately 60 mol% of total monosaccharides. The main glycosyl linkages included 3-, 4-, and 2,3-rhamnopyranosyl linkages. All spirulina hot water extracts showed no toxicity toward human epithelial type 2 (HEp-2) cells but demonstrated anti-RSV activity. The SHD1 had a half maximal effective concentration (EC50) of 0.0915 mg/ml and a selective index (SI) of >261.5 against RSV. SHD1 significantly reduced viral yield in a dose-dependent manner during the RSV attachment stage. SHD1 disrupted RSV internalization and inhibited RSV attachment (G) protein binding to heparan sulfate receptors on the host cell surface, thus preventing RSV attachment and entry. CONCLUSION: SHD1 serves as an effective candidate for novel drug development against RSV infection.

Protective Effect of the Phycobiliproteins from Arthrospira maxima on Indomethacin-Induced Gastric Ulcer in a Rat Model.

Gastric ulcers (GU) constitute a disease with a global prevalence ≈ 8.09 million. Of their causes, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as indomethacin (IND) rank as the second most frequent etiologic agent. The pathogenic process of gastric lesions is given by the overproduction of oxidative stress, promotion of inflammatory processes, and inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. Spirulina Arthrospira maxima (SP) is a cyanobacterium with a wide variety of substances with high nutritional and health values such as phycobiliproteins (PBPs) that have outstanding antioxidant activity, anti-inflammatories effects, and accelerate the wound healing process. This study aimed to determine the protective effect of PBPs in GU induced by IND 40 mg/kg. Our results show that the PBPs protected against IND-induced damage with a dose-dependent effect. At a dose of 400 mg/kg, a marked decrease in the number of lesions is observed, as well as the recovery of the main markers of oxidative stress damage (MDA) and antioxidant species (SOD, CAT, GPx) at close to baseline levels. The evidence derived from the present investigation suggests that the antioxidant effect of PBPs, together with their reported anti-inflammatory effects to accelerate the wound healing process, is the most reliable cause of their antiulcerogenic activity in this GU model.

A New and Profitable Protocol to DNA Extraction in Limnospira maxima.

Limnospira maxima is a remarkable organism showing great potential as a versatile and sustainable food source, offering a powerful solution to address the pressing issues of malnutrition and undernourishment worldwide. L. maxima contains high amounts of proteins, vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids. It can be grown in both bioreactors and open systems; however, before considering industrial production, optimization studies of the cultivation must be conducted to obtain knowledge about the ideal environmental conditions. Additionally, for the molecular typing of L. maxima strains and their industrial scaling, high-quality and large quantity DNA extraction is required. Notwithstanding, DNA extraction from L. maxima can be challenging due to the low amount of DNA in cells and the presence of difficult-to-remove substances such as polysaccharides and polyphenols. In this study, the quality and quantity of DNA extracted from two types of L. maxima samples (Limnospira maxima strain SISCA accession GenBank: OR195505.1) were evaluated using three commercially available DNA extraction kits and two types of input biological material. The results showed that Pbact-P kit had the highest quantity and quality of DNA, while CTAB-P allowed for a higher quantity and quality of RNA, making them optimal protocols for nucleic acid extraction to improve PCR, rt-PCR, and genome sequencing of L. maxima compared with other extraction methods.

Phase partitioning of mercury, arsenic, selenium, and cadmium in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Arthrospira maxima microcosms.

As the global human population increases, demand for protein will surpass our current production ability without an increase in land use or intensification. Microalgae cultivation offers a high yield of protein, and utilization of wastewater from municipal or agricultural sources in place of freshwater for microalgae aquaculture may increase the sustainability of this practice. However, wastewater from municipal and agricultural sources may contain contaminants, such as mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), selenium (Se), and arsenic (As). Association of these elements with algal biomass may present an exposure risk to product consumers, while volatilization may present an exposure hazard to industry workers. Thus, the partitioning of these elements should be evaluated before wastewater can be confidently used in an aquaculture setting. This study explored the potential for exposure associated with Arthrospira maxima and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii aquaculture in medium contaminated with 0.33 µg Hg L-1, 60 µg As L-1, 554 µg Se L-1, and 30 µg Cd L-1. Gaseous effluent from microalgae aquaculture was analyzed for Hg, As, Se, and Cd to quantify volatilization. A mass balance approach was used to describe the partitioning of elements between the biomass, medium, and gas phases at the end of exponential growth. Contaminants were recovered predominantly in medium and biomass, regardless of microalgae strain. In the case of Hg, 48 ± 2% was associated with A. maxima biomass and 55 ± 8% with C. reinhardtii when Hg was present as the only contaminant, but this increased to 85 ± 11% in C. reinhardtii biomass when As, Se, and Cd were also present. A small and highly variable abiotic volatilization of Hg was observed in the gas phase of both A. maxima and C. reinhardtii cultures. Evidence presented herein suggests that utilizing wastewater containing Hg, Cd, Se, and As for microalgae cultivation may present health hazards to consumers.

Optimal Laboratory Cultivation Conditions of Limnospira maxima for Large-Scale Production.

Cultivating Limnospira maxima, renowned for its abundant proteins and valuable pigments, faces substantial challenges rooted in the limited understanding of its optimal growth parameters, associated high costs, and constraints in the procurement of traditional nitrogen sources, particularly NaNO3. To overcome these challenges, we conducted a comprehensive 4 × 3 factorial design study. Factors considered included white, red, blue, and yellow light spectra, along with nitrogen sources NaNO3 and KNO3, as well as a nitrogen-free control, for large-scale implementation. Optimal growth, measured by Optical Density, occurred with white and yellow light combined with KNO3 as the nitrogen source. These conditions also increased dry weight and Chl-a content. Cultures with nitrogen deprivation exhibited high values for these variables, attributed to carbon accumulation in response to nitrogen scarcity. Phycocyanin, a crucial pigment for nutrition and industry, reached its highest levels in cultures exposed to white light and supplemented with KNO3, with an impressive content of 384.11 g kg-1 of dry weight. These results highlight the efficacy and cost-efficiency of using a combination of white light and KNO3 for large-scale L. maxima cultivation. This strategy offers promising opportunities to address global food security challenges and enhance the production of industrially relevant pigments.

Commercial Potential of the Cyanobacterium Arthrospira maxima: Physiological and Biochemical Traits and the Purification of Phycocyanin.

Arthrospira maxima is a natural source of fine chemicals for multiple biotechnological applications. We determined the optimal environmental conditions for A. maxima by measuring its relative growth rate (RGR), pigment yield, and photosynthetic performance under different pH and temperature conditions. RGR was highest at pH 7-9 and 30 °C. Chlorophyll a, phycocyanin, maximal quantum yield (Fv/Fm), relative maximal electron transport rate (rETRmax), and effective quantum yield (ΦPSII) were highest at pH 7-8 and 25 °C. Interestingly, phycoerythrin and allophycocyanin content was highest at 15 °C, which may be the lowest optimum temperature reported for phycobiliprotein production in the Arthrospira species. A threestep purification of phycocyanin (PC) by ultrafiltration, ion-exchange chromatography, and gel filtration resulted in a 97.6% purity of PC.

Physiological and Metabolic Response of Arthrospira maxima to Organophosphates.

The Spirulina spp. exhibited an ability to tolerate the organophosphates. This study aimed to explore the effects of the herbicide glyphosate on a selected strain of the cyanobacteria Arthrospira maxima cultivated in a company. Experimental cultivations acclimated in aquaria were treated with 0.2 mM glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine]. The culture biomass, the phycocyanin, and the chlorophyll a concentrations were evaluated every week during 42 days of treatment. The differentially expressed proteins in the treated cyanobacteria versus the control cultivations were evaluated weekly during 21 days of treatment. Even if the glyphosate treatment negatively affected the biomass and the photosynthetic pigments, it induced resistance in the survival A. maxima population. Proteins belonging to the response to osmotic stress and methylation pathways were strongly accumulated in treated cultivation; the response to toxic substances and the negative regulation of transcription seemed to have a role in the resistance. The glyphosate-affected enzyme, chorismate synthase, a key enzyme in the shikimic acid pathway, was accumulated during treatment, suggesting that the surviving strain of A. maxima expressed a glyphosate-resistant target enzyme.

Influence of Different Light Sources on the Biochemical Composition of Arthrospira spp. Grown in Model Systems.

Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima are prokaryotic microalgae commercially marketed as spirulina. The pigments extracted from these algae are widely used for cosmetic and nutraceutical applications. This work aimed to evaluate the influence of three light-emitting lamps (white, orange and blue) on the growth and biomass composition of two strains of A. platensis (M2 and M2M) and one of A. maxima. The obtained data show strain- and light-dependent responses of the microalgae. In addition, white and orange lights led to a similar overall effect by increasing the levels of chlorophyll a and carotenoids. However, exposure to orange light resulted in the highest dry weight (5973.3 mg L-1 in M2M), whereas white light stimulated an increase in the carbohydrate fraction (up to 42.36 g 100 g-1 in A. maxima). Conversely, blue light led to a constant increase in the concentration of phycocyanin (14 g 100 g-1 in A. maxima) and a higher content of proteins in all strains. These results provide important environmental information for modulating the growth of different spirulina strains, which can be used to address the synthesis of biochemical compounds of strategic importance for the development of new nutraceutical foods.

Complementary and Alternative Therapies for Onychomycosis: A Systematic Review of the Clinical Evidence.

Introduction: Onychomycosis is notoriously difficult to treat. While oral antifungals are the most efficacious treatment for onychomycosis, they are contraindicated in certain patient populations, and patients may desire lower risk and accessible alternatives to systemic agents. In this study, we examine the clinical evidence supporting the use of complementary and alternative therapies in the treatment of onychomycosis. Methods: PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library were searched for clinical trials, observational studies, and case reports/case series, examining the efficacy of a complementary or alternative therapy for the treatment of onychomycosis. Results: We identified 17 articles studying a complementary and alternative therapy for onychomycosis, including tea tree oil (n = 5), Ageratina pichinchensis (n = 3), Arthrospira maxima (n = 2), natural coniferous resin lacquer (n = 2), Vicks VapoRub® (n = 2), propolis extract (n = 2), and ozonized sunflower oil (n = 1). Conclusion: Given the rise of antifungal resistance, complementary and alternative therapies should continue to be studied as adjunctive or alternative therapy for onychomycosis. While preliminary evidence exists for several complementary and alternative therapies in the treatment of onychomycosis, large-scale, randomized, placebo-controlled trials are needed prior to endorsing their use to patients.

Advances in delivery methods of Arthrospira platensis (spirulina) for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.

Arthrospira platensis (A. platensis) aqueous extract has massive amounts of natural products that can be used as future drugs, such as C-phycocyanin, allophycocyanin, etc. This extract was chosen because of its high adaptability, which reflects its resolute genetic composition. The proactive roles of cyanobacteria, particularly in the medical field, have been discussed in this review, including the history, previous food and drug administration (FDA) reports, health benefits and the various dose-dependent therapeutic functions that A. platensis possesses, including its role in fighting against lethal diseases such as cancer, SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19, etc. However, the remedy will not present its maximal effect without the proper delivery to the targeted place for deposition. The goal of this research is to maximize the bioavailability and delivery efficiency of A. platensis constituents through selected sites for effective therapeutic outcomes. The solutions reviewed are mainly on parenteral and tablet formulations. Moreover, suggested enteric polymers were discussed with minor composition variations applied for better storage in high humid countries alongside minor variations in the polymer design were suggested to enhance the premature release hindrance of basic drugs in low pH environments. In addition, it will open doors for research in delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in femtoscale with the use of various existing and new formulations.Abbrevations: SDGs; Sustainable Development Goals, IL-4; Interleukin-4, HDL; High-Density Lipoprotein, LDL; Low-Density Lipoprotein, VLDL; Very Low-Density Lipoprotein, C-PC; C-Phycocyanin, APC; Allophycocyanin, PE; Phycoerythrin, COX-2; Cyclooxygenase-2, RCTs; Randomized Control Trials, TNF-α; Tumour Necrosis Factor-alpha, γ-LFA; Gamma-Linolenic Fatty Acid, PGs; Polyglycans, PUFAs: Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids, NK-cell; Natural Killer Cell, FDA; Food and Drug Administration, GRAS; Generally Recognized as Safe, SD; Standard Deviation, API; Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient, DW; Dry Weight, IM; Intramuscular, IV; Intravenous, ID; Intradermal, SC; Subcutaneous, AERs; Adverse Event Reports, DSI-EC; Dietary Supplement Information Executive Committee, cGMP; Current Good Manufacturing Process, A. platensis; Arthrospira platensis, A. maxima; Arthrospira maxima, Spirulina sp.; Spirulina species, Arthrospira; Spirulina, Tecuitlatl; Spirulina, CRC; Colorectal Cancer, HDI; Human Development Index, Tf; Transferrin, TfR; Transferrin Receptor, FR; Flow Rate, CPP; Cell Penetrating Peptide, SUV; Small Unilamenar Vesicle, LUV; Large Unilamenar Vesicle, GUV; Giant Unilamenar Vesicle, MLV; Multilamenar Vesicle, COVID-19; Coronavirus-19, PEGylated; Stealth, PEG; Polyethylene Glycol, OSCEs; Objective Structured Clinical Examinations, GI; Gastrointestinal Tract, CAP; Cellulose Acetate Phthalate, HPMCP, Hydroxypropyl Methyl-Cellulose Phthalate, SR; Sustained Release, DR; Delay Release, Poly(MA-EA); Polymethyl Acrylic Co-Ethyl Acrylate, f-DR L-30 D-55; Femto-Delay Release Methyl Acrylic Acid Co-Ethyl Acrylate Polymer, MW; Molecular Weight, Tg; Glass Transition Temperature, SN2; Nucleophilic Substitution 2, EPR; Enhance Permeability and Retention, VEGF; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, RGD; Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic Acid, VCAM-1; Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1, P; Coefficient of Permeability, PES; Polyether Sulfone, pHe; Extracellular pH, ζ-potential; Zeta potential, NTA; Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, PB; Phosphate Buffer, DLS; Dynamic Light Scattering, AFM; Atomic Force Microscope, Log P; Partition Coefficient, MR; Molar Refractivity, tPSA; Topological Polar Surface Area, C log P; Calculated Partition Coefficient, CMR; Calculated Molar Refractivity, Log S; Solubility Coefficient, pka; Acid Dissociation Constant, DDAB; Dimethyl Dioctadecyl Ammonium Bromide, DOPE; Dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine, GDP; Good Distribution Practice, RES; Reticuloendothelial System, PKU; Phenylketonuria, MS; Multiple Sclerosis, SLE; Systemic Lupus Erythematous, NASA; National Aeronautics and Space Administration, DOX; Doxorubicin, ADRs; Adverse Drug Reactions, SVM; Support Vector Machine, MDA; Malondialdehyde, TBARS; Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances, CRP; C-Reactive Protein, CK; Creatine Kinase, LDH; Lactated Dehydrogenase, T2D; Type 2 Diabetes, PCB; Phycocyanobilin, PBP; Phycobiliproteins, PEB; Phycoerythrobilin, DPP-4; Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4, MTT; 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide, IL-2; Interleukin-2, IL-6; Interleukin-6, PRISMA; Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, STATA; Statistics, HepG2; Hepatoblastoma, HCT116; Colon Cancer Carcinoma, Kasumi-1; Acute Leukaemia, K562; Chronic Leukaemia, Se-PC; Selenium-Phycocyanin, MCF-7; Breast Cancer Adenocarcinoma, A375; Human Melanoma, RAS; Renin-Angiotensin System, IQP; Ile-Gln-Pro, VEP; Val-Glu-Pro, Mpro; Main Protease, PLpro; Papin-Like Protease, BMI; Body Mass Index, IC50; Inhibitory Concentration by 50%, LD50; Lethal Dose by 50%, PC12 Adh; Rat Pheochromocytoma Cells, RNS; Reactive Nitrogen Species, Hb1Ac; hemoglobin A1c.

Increase awareness of the impact and multi-disciplinary up-to-date roles of A. platensis on human lives and the importance of having further research on microalgae.Soliciting a critical analysis study on A. platensis biocomposition for drug delivery research.Insights on the correlation between ionization and drug bioavailability in specific sites in the human body.Offering solutions for improvising an optimized 'Advanced Spirulina Dosage Forms' products to maximize A. platensis therapeutic/pharmacological outcomes.Insights on existing biomaterials for optimization.

Protective effects of Spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) against toxicity induced by cadmium in Xenopus laevis.

Spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) has been recognized as a superfood and nutraceutical by its high nutritional value and the benefits of its consumption; it is an important source of lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It is known that spirulina has positive effects on the toxicity induced by pharmaceuticals and metals. Heavy metals such as cadmium, frequently used in industrial activities, are continuously detected in water bodies and can generate adverse effects on aquatic organisms even at low concentrations. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) against the toxic effects induced by cadmium in the early life stages of Xenopus laevis. Twenty Xenopus laevis embryos were exposed to five different treatments on triplicate, control, cadmium (CdCl2 24.5 µg L-1) and three spirulina mixtures Cd + S 1 (24.5 µg L-1 CdCl2 + 2 mg L-1 spirulina), Cd + S 2 (24.5 µg L-1 CdCl2 + 2 mg L-1 spirulina), Cd + S 3 (24.5 µg L-1 CdCl2 + 10 mg L-1 spirulina); after 96 h of exposure: Malformations, mortality and length were evaluated; also, after 192 h, lipid peroxidation (LPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were determined. All spirulina treatments decreased mortality from 34 to 50% and reduced malformations on incidence from 36 to 68%. Treatment Cd + S 3 decreased growth inhibition significantly. Spirulina treatment Cd + S 2 decreased lipidic peroxidation and antioxidant activity; these results suggest that spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) can decrease the mortality, frequency of malformations, the severity of malformations, growth inhibition, and oxidative damage induced by cadmium in Xenopus laevis embryos.

Effect of residence time in continuous photobioreactor on mass and energy balance of microalgal protein production.

There is increasing interest in new protein sources for the food and feed industry and for the agricultural sector, and microalgae are considered a good alternative, having a high protein content and a well-balanced amino acid profile. However, protein production from microalgae presents several unsolved issues, as the biomass composition changes markedly as a function of cultivation operating conditions. Continuous systems, however, may be properly set to boost the accumulation of protein in the biomass, ensuring stable production. Here, two microalgae and two cyanobacterial species were cultivated in continuous operating photobioreactors (PBR) under nonlimiting nutrient conditions, to study the effects of light intensity and residence time on both biomass and protein productivity at steady state. Although light strongly affected biomass growth inside the PBR, the overall protein pool did not vary in response to irradiance. On the other hand, shorter residence times resulted in protein accumulation of up to 68 % in cyanobacteria, in contrast with green algae, where a minor influence of residence time on biomass composition was observed. Energy balance showed that light conversion to protein decreased with light intensity. Protein content was also related to energy costs for cell maintenance. In conclusion, it is shown that residence time is the key variable to increase protein content and yield of protein production, but its effect depends on the specific species.

Impact of Spirulina maxima Intake and Exercise (SIE) on Metabolic and Fitness Parameters in Sedentary Older Adults with Excessive Body Mass: Study Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Life expectancy has increased unprecedentedly in recent decades, benefiting the longevity of the world's population. The most frequent pathological conditions presented in this age group include excessive body fat, frailty, and hypercholesterolemia. These pathological characteristics condition general health and autonomy in adults to carry out their usual activities. In this sense, the search for a healthy lifestyle is necessary, consisting in a healthy diet that includes supplementation with nutraceuticals and the daily practice of physical activity. This study protocol aims to evaluate the independent and synergistic effect of 12 weeks of Spirulina maxima intake (5 g/day), with or without an exercise program on metabolic and fitness parameters of 52 sedentary older adults with excessive body mass in a double-blind, randomized, crossover, controlled trial design. The main findings from this trial will provide novel evidence for future interventions designed for the elderly population and the result will be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals and international meetings. ClinicalTrials.gov identification number: NCT04658875 (Effect of Spirulina maxima and Exercise on General Fitness and Blood Lipids in Older Adults).