Biosynthesis and Metabolism of ApoB-Containing Lipoproteins.

Recent advances in human genetics, together with a substantial body of epidemiological, preclinical and clinical trial evidence, strongly support a causal relationship between triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs) and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Consequently, the secretion and metabolism of TRLs have a significant impact on cardiovascular health. This knowledge underscores the importance of understanding the molecular mechanisms and regulation of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and chylomicron biogenesis. Fortunately, there has been a resurgence of interest in the intracellular assembly, trafficking, degradation, and secretion of VLDL, leading to many ground-breaking molecular insights. Furthermore, the identification of molecular control mechanisms related to triglyceride metabolism has greatly advanced our understanding of the complex metabolism of TRLs. In this review, we explore recent advances in the assembly, secretion, and metabolism of TRLs. We also discuss available treatment strategies for hypertriglyceridemia.

Chylomicrons Regulate Lacteal Permeability and Intestinal Lipid Absorption.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic vessels are responsible for tissue drainage, and their malfunction is associated with chronic diseases. Lymph uptake occurs via specialized open cell-cell junctions between capillary lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs), whereas closed junctions in collecting LECs prevent lymph leakage. LEC junctions are known to dynamically remodel in development and disease, but how lymphatic permeability is regulated remains poorly understood. METHODS: We used various genetically engineered mouse models in combination with cellular, biochemical, and molecular biology approaches to elucidate the signaling pathways regulating junction morphology and function in lymphatic capillaries. RESULTS: By studying the permeability of intestinal lacteal capillaries to lipoprotein particles known as chylomicrons, we show that ROCK (Rho-associated kinase)-dependent cytoskeletal contractility is a fundamental mechanism of LEC permeability regulation. We show that chylomicron-derived lipids trigger neonatal lacteal junction opening via ROCK-dependent contraction of junction-anchored stress fibers. LEC-specific ROCK deletion abolished junction opening and plasma lipid uptake. Chylomicrons additionally inhibited VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor)-A signaling. We show that VEGF-A antagonizes LEC junction opening via VEGFR (VEGF receptor) 2 and VEGFR3-dependent PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase)/AKT (protein kinase B) activation of the small GTPase RAC1 (Rac family small GTPase 1), thereby restricting RhoA (Ras homolog family member A)/ROCK-mediated cytoskeleton contraction. CONCLUSIONS: Our results reveal that antagonistic inputs into ROCK-dependent cytoskeleton contractions regulate the interconversion of lymphatic junctions in the intestine and in other tissues, providing a tunable mechanism to control the lymphatic barrier.

Release of Lipids Stored in the Intestine by Glucagon-Like Peptide-2 Involves a Gut-Brain Neural Pathway.

BACKGROUND: The gut hormone GLP-2 (glucagon-like peptide-2) plays important roles in lipid handling in the intestine. During postabsorptive stage, it releases preformed chylomicrons stored in the intestine, the underlying mechanisms of which are not well understood. Previous studies implicate the involvement of neural pathways in GLP-2's actions on lipid absorption in the intestine, but the role of such mechanisms in releasing postabsorptive lipid storage has not been established. METHODS: Here, in mesenteric lymph duct cannulated rats, we directly tested whether gut-brain neural communication mediates GLP-2's effects on postabsorptive lipid mobilization in the intestine. We performed total subdiaphragmatic vagotomy to disrupt the gut-brain neural communication and analyzed lipid output 5 hours after a lipid load in response to intraperitoneal GLP-2 or saline. RESULTS: Peripheral GLP-2 administration led to increased lymph lipid output and activation of proopiomelanocortin neurons in the arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus. Disruption of gut-brain neural communication via vagotomy blunted GLP-2's effects on promoting lipid release in the intestine. CONCLUSIONS: These results, for the first time, demonstrate a novel mechanism in which postabsorptive mobilization of intestinal lipid storage by GLP-2 enlists a gut-brain neural pathway.

Ethnic Diversity and Distinctive Features of Familial Versus Multifactorial Chylomicronemia Syndrome: Insights From the UK FCS National Registry.

BACKGROUND: Familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder. This study aimed to study the genotype distribution of FCS-causing genes in the United Kingdom, genotype-phenotype correlation, and clinical differences between FCS and multifactorial chylomicronemia syndrome (MCS). METHODS: The study included 154 patients (FCS, 74; MCS, 80) from the UK FCS national registry and the UK arm of the FCS International Quality Improvement and Service Evaluation Project. RESULTS: FCS was relatively common in non-Europeans and those with parental consanguinity (P<0.001 for both). LPL variants were more common in European patients with FCS (European, 64%; non-European, 46%), while the genotype was more diverse in non-European patients with FCS. Patients with FCS had a higher incidence compared with patients with MCS of acute pancreatitis (84% versus 60%; P=0.001), recurrent pancreatitis (92% versus 63%; P<0.001), unexplained abdominal pain (84% versus 52%; P<0.001), earlier age of onset (median [interquartile range]) of symptoms (15.0 [5.5-26.5] versus 34.0 [25.2-41.7] years; P<0.001), and of acute pancreatitis (24.0 [10.7-31.0] versus 33.5 [26.0-42.5] years; P<0.001). Adverse cardiometabolic features and their co-occurrence was more common in individuals with MCS compared with those with FCS (P<0.001 for each). Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease was more prevalent in individuals with MCS than those with FCS (P=0.04). However, this association became nonsignificant after adjusting for age, sex, and body mass index. The prevalence of pancreatic complications and cardiometabolic profile of variant-positive MCS was intermediate between FCS and variant-negative MCS. CONCLUSIONS: The frequency of gene variant distribution varies based on the ethnic origin of patients with FCS. Patients with FCS are at a higher risk of pancreatic complications while the prevalence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is lower in FCS compared with MCS. Carriers of heterozygous pathogenic variants have an intermediate phenotype between FCS and variant-negative MCS.

Impaired intestinal free fatty acid transport followed by chylomicron malformation, not pancreatic insufficiency, cause metabolic defects in cystic fibrosis.

Intestinal disease is one of the earliest manifestations of cystic fibrosis (CF) in children and is closely tied to deficits in growth and nutrition, both of which are directly linked to future mortality. Patients are treated aggressively with pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy and a high-fat diet to circumvent fat malabsorption, but this does not reverse growth and nutritional defects. We hypothesized that defects in chylomicron production could explain why CF body weights and nutrition are so resistant to clinical treatments. We used gold standard intestinal lipid absorption and metabolism approaches, including mouse mesenteric lymph cannulation, in vivo chylomicron secretion kinetics, transmission electron microscopy, small intestinal organoids, and chylomicron metabolism assays to test this hypothesis. In mice expressing the G542X mutation in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR-/- mice), we find that defective FFA trafficking across the epithelium into enterocytes drives a chylomicron formation defect. Furthermore, G542X mice secrete small, triglyceride-poor chylomicrons into the lymph and blood. These defective chylomicrons are cleared into extraintestinal tissues at ∼10-fold faster than WT chylomicrons. This defect in FFA absorption resulting in dysfunctional chylomicrons cannot be explained by steatorrhea or pancreatic insufficiency and is maintained in primary small intestinal organoids treated with micellar lipids. These studies suggest that the ultrahigh-fat diet that most people with CF are counselled to follow may instead make steatorrhea and malabsorption defects worse by overloading the absorptive capacity of the CF small intestine.

Intestinal absorption of sphingosine: new insights on generated ceramide species using stable isotope tracing in vitro.

Dietary sphingomyelin (SM) has been reported to favorably modulate postprandial lipemia. Mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects on cardiovascular risk markers are not fully elucidated. Rodent studies showed that tritiated SM was hydrolyzed in the intestinal lumen into ceramides (Cer) and further to sphingosine (SPH) and fatty acids (FA) that were absorbed by the intestine. Our objective was to investigate the uptake and metabolism of SPH and/or tricosanoic acid (C23:0), the main FA of milk SM, as well as lipid secretion in Caco-2/TC7 cells cultured on semipermeable inserts. Mixed micelles (MM) consisting of different digested lipids and taurocholate were prepared without or with SPH, SPH and C23:0 (SPH+C23:0), or C23:0. Triglycerides (TG) were quantified in the basolateral medium, and sphingolipids were analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. TG secretion increased 11-fold in all MM-incubated cells compared with lipid-free medium. Apical supply of SPH-enriched MM led to increased concentrations of total Cer in cells, and coaddition of C23:0 in SPH-enriched MM led to a preferential increase of C23:0 Cer and C23:0 SM. Complementary experiments using deuterated SPH demonstrated that SPH-d9 was partly converted to sphingosine-1-phosphate-d9, Cer-d9, and SM-d9 within cells incubated with SPH-enriched MM. A few Cer-d9 (2% of added SPH-d9) was recovered in the basolateral medium of (MM+SPH)-incubated cells, especially C23:0 Cer-d9 in (MM+SPH+C23:0)-enriched cells. In conclusion, present results indicate that MM enriched with (SPH+C23:0), such as found in postprandial micelles formed after milk SM ingestion, directly impacts sphingolipid endogenous metabolism in enterocytes, resulting in the secretion of TG-rich particles enriched with C23:0 Cer.

Insulin-stimulated adipocytes secrete lactate to promote endothelial fatty acid uptake and transport.

Insulin stimulates adipose tissue to extract fatty acids from circulation and sequester them inside adipose cells. How fatty acids are transported across the capillary endothelial barrier, and how this process is regulated, remains unclear. We modeled the relationship of adipocytes and endothelial cells in vitro to test the role of insulin in fatty acid transport. Treatment of endothelial cells with insulin did not affect endothelial fatty acid uptake, but endothelial cells took up more fatty acids when exposed to medium conditioned by adipocytes treated with insulin. Manipulations of this conditioned medium indicated that the secreted factor is a small, hydrophilic, non-proteinaceous metabolite. Factor activity was correlated with lactate concentration, and inhibition of lactate production in adipocytes abolished the activity. Finally, lactate alone was sufficient to increase endothelial uptake of both free fatty acids and lipids liberated from chylomicrons, and to promote transendothelial transport, at physiologically relevant concentrations. Taken together, these data suggest that insulin drives adipocytes to secrete lactate, which then acts in a paracrine fashion to promote fatty acid uptake and transport across the neighboring endothelial barrier.

Surf4 (Surfeit Locus Protein 4) Deficiency Reduces Intestinal Lipid Absorption and Secretion and Decreases Metabolism in Mice.

BACKGROUND: Postprandial dyslipidemia is a causative risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The majority of absorbed dietary lipids are packaged into chylomicron and then delivered to circulation. Previous studies showed that Surf4 (surfeit locus protein 4) mediates very low-density lipoprotein secretion from hepatocytes. Silencing hepatic Surf4 markedly reduces the development of atherosclerosis in different mouse models of atherosclerosis without causing hepatic steatosis. However, the role of Surf4 in chylomicron secretion is unknown. METHODS: We developed inducible intestinal-specific Surf4 knockdown mice (Surf4IKO) using Vil1Cre-ERT2 and Surf4flox mice. Metabolic cages were used to monitor mouse metabolism. Enzymatic kits were employed to measure serum and tissue lipid levels. The expression of target genes was detected by qRT-PCR and Western Blot. Transmission electron microscopy and radiolabeled oleic acid were used to assess the structure of enterocytes and intestinal lipid absorption and secretion, respectively. Proteomics was performed to determine changes in protein expression in serum and jejunum. RESULTS: Surf4IKO mice, especially male Surf4IKO mice, displayed significant body weight loss, increased mortality, and reduced metabolism. Surf4IKO mice exhibited lipid accumulation in enterocytes and impaired fat absorption and secretion. Lipid droplets and small lipid vacuoles were accumulated in the cytosol and the endoplasmic reticulum lumen of the enterocytes of Surf4IKO mice, respectively. Surf4 colocalized with apoB and co-immunoprecipitated with apoB48 in differentiated Caco-2 cells. Intestinal Surf4 deficiency also significantly reduced serum triglyceride, cholesterol, and free fatty acid levels in mice. Proteomics data revealed that diverse pathways were altered in Surf4IKO mice. In addition, Surf4IKO mice had mild liver damage, decreased liver size and weight, and reduced hepatic triglyceride levels. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings demonstrate that intestinal Surf4 plays an essential role in lipid absorption and chylomicron secretion and suggest that the therapeutic use of Surf4 inhibition requires highly cell/tissue-specific targeting.

Familial chylomicronemia syndrome: case reports of siblings with deletions of the GPIHBP1 gene.

BACKGROUND: Familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS) is a rare monogenic form of severe hypertriglyceridemia, caused by mutations in genes involved in triglyceride metabolism. Herein, we report the case of a Korean family with familial chylomicronemia syndrome caused by compound heterozygous deletions of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein-binding protein 1 (GPIHBP1). CASE PRESENTATION: A 4-year-old boy was referred for the evaluation of severe hypertriglyceridemia (3734 mg/dL) that was incidentally detected 4 months prior. His elder brother also demonstrated an elevated triglyceride level of 2133 mg/dL at the age of 9. Lipoprotein electrophoresis revealed the presence of chylomicrons, an increase in the proportion of pre-beta lipoproteins, and low serum lipoprotein lipase levels. The patient's parents and first elder brother had stable lipid profiles. For suspected FCS, genetic testing was performed using the next-generation sequencing-based analysis of 31 lipid metabolism-associated genes, which revealed no pathogenic variants. However, copy number variant screening using sequencing depth information suggested large heterozygous deletion encompassing all the coding exons of GPIHBP1. A real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was performed to validate the deletion site. The results showed that the siblings had two heterozygous copy number variants consisting of the whole gene and an exon 4 deletion, each inherited from their parents. During the follow-up period of 17 months, the patient did not develop pancreatitis, following dietary intervention. CONCLUSION: These siblings' case of familial chylomicronemia syndrome caused by rare GPIHBP1 deletions highlight the implementation of copy number variants-beyond next-generation sequencing-as an important consideration in diagnosis. Accurate genetic diagnosis is necessary to establish the etiology of severe hypertriglyceridemia, which increases the risk of pancreatitis.

Novel First-Generation Dissolution Models to Investigate the Release and Uptake of Oral Lymphotropic Drug Products.

Conventional dissolution tests only assess the aqueous release of drugs to ensure quality and performance, without indicating whether absorption occurs through the portal or the lymphatic circulation. To address this issue, this study aimed to develop novel first-generation dissolution models that could investigate the release and uptake of oral lymphotropic drugs and examine relevant formulation issues. Dissolution of three commercial lymphotropic drug products (Terbinafina, Apo-terbinafine, and Lamisil) was done using modified versions of USP Apparatus II and IV. The developed models contained a lymphatic compartment filled with artificial chylomicrons to account for absorption through intestinal lymphatic pathway. The various products exhibited different release profiles into the aqueous media and the lymphatic media across the two tested models. The modified USP IV apparatus demonstrated greater distinction in aqueous release patterns. However, the release pattern into the lymphatic media remained similar in both models. This work represents a progress in meeting the challenges posed by the increasing complexity of pharmaceutical products containing lipophilic drugs or formulations, and has the potential to contribute towards the development of in-vitro bioequivalence standards for formulations targeting intestinal lymphatics.

Effect of omega-3 ethyl esters on the triglyceride-rich lipoprotein response to endotoxin challenge in healthy young men.

Oxylipins are produced enzymatically from polyunsaturated fatty acids, are abundant in triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TGRLs), and mediate inflammatory processes. Inflammation elevates TGRL concentrations, but it is unknown if the fatty acid and oxylipin compositions change. In this study, we investigated the effect of prescription ω-3 acid ethyl esters (P-OM3; 3.4 g/d EPA + DHA) on the lipid response to an endotoxin challenge (lipopolysaccharide; 0.6 ng/kg body weight). Healthy young men (N = 17) were assigned 8-12 weeks of P-OM3 and olive oil control in a randomized order crossover study. Following each treatment period, subjects received endotoxin challenge, and the time-dependent TGRL composition was observed. Postchallenge, arachidonic acid was 16% [95% CI: 4%, 28%] lower than baseline at 8 h with control. P-OM3 increased TGRL ω-3 fatty acids (EPA 24% [15%, 34%]; DHA 14% [5%, 24%]). The timing of ω-6 oxylipin responses differed by class; arachidonic acid-derived alcohols peaked at 2 h, while linoleic acid-derived alcohols peaked at 4 h (pint = 0.006). P-OM3 increased EPA alcohols by 161% [68%, 305%] and DHA epoxides by 178% [47%, 427%] at 4 h compared to control. In conclusion, this study shows that TGRL fatty acid and oxylipin composition changes following endotoxin challenge. P-OM3 alters the TGRL response to endotoxin challenge by increasing availability of ω-3 oxylipins for resolution of the inflammatory response.

Contribution of intestinal triglyceride-rich lipoproteins to residual atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk in individuals with type 2 diabetes on statin therapy.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: This study explored the hypothesis that significant abnormalities in the metabolism of intestinally derived lipoproteins are present in individuals with type 2 diabetes on statin therapy. These abnormalities may contribute to residual CVD risk. METHODS: To investigate the kinetics of ApoB-48- and ApoB-100-containing lipoproteins, we performed a secondary analysis of 11 overweight/obese individuals with type 2 diabetes who were treated with lifestyle counselling and on a stable dose of metformin who were from an earlier clinical study, and compared these with 11 control participants frequency-matched for age, BMI and sex. Participants in both groups were on a similar statin regimen during the study. Stable isotope tracers were used to determine the kinetics of the following in response to a standard fat-rich meal: (1) apolipoprotein (Apo)B-48 in chylomicrons and VLDL; (2) ApoB-100 in VLDL, intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL) and LDL; and (3) triglyceride (TG) in VLDL. RESULTS: The fasting lipid profile did not differ significantly between the two groups. Compared with control participants, in individuals with type 2 diabetes, chylomicron TG and ApoB-48 levels exhibited an approximately twofold higher response to the fat-rich meal, and a twofold higher increment was observed in ApoB-48 particles in the VLDL1 and VLDL2 density ranges (all p < 0.05). Again comparing control participants with individuals with type 2 diabetes, in the latter, total ApoB-48 production was 25% higher (556 ± 57 vs 446 ± 57 mg/day; p < 0.001), conversion (fractional transfer rate) of chylomicrons to VLDL was around 40% lower (35 ± 25 vs 82 ± 58 pools/day; p=0.034) and direct clearance of chylomicrons was 5.6-fold higher (5.6 ± 2.2 vs 1.0 ± 1.8 pools/day; p < 0.001). During the postprandial period, ApoB-48 particles accounted for a higher proportion of total VLDL in individuals with type 2 diabetes (44%) compared with control participants (25%), and these ApoB-48 VLDL particles exhibited a fivefold longer residence time in the circulation (p < 0.01). No between-group differences were seen in the kinetics of ApoB-100 and TG in VLDL, or in LDL ApoB-100 production, pool size and clearance rate. As compared with control participants, the IDL ApoB-100 pool in individuals with type 2 diabetes was higher due to increased conversion from VLDL2. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Abnormalities in the metabolism of intestinally derived ApoB-48-containing lipoproteins in individuals with type 2 diabetes on statins may help to explain the residual risk of CVD and may be suitable targets for interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02948777.

Do Triglyceride-Rich Lipoproteins Equal Low-Density Lipoproteins in Risk of ASCVD?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Recent large clinical trials have failed to show that triglyceride-rich lipoprotein-lowering therapies decrease the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). In this review, we reconcile these findings with evidence showing that elevated levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and the cholesterol they contain, remnant cholesterol, cause ASCVD alongside low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. RECENT FINDINGS: Results from observational epidemiology, genetic epidemiology, and randomized controlled trials indicate that lowering of remnant cholesterol and LDL cholesterol decrease ASCVD risk by a similar magnitude per 1 mmol/L (39 mg/dL) lower non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (remnant cholesterol+LDL cholesterol). Indeed, recent guidelines for ASCVD prevention recommend the use of non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol instead of LDL cholesterol. Current consensus is moving towards recognizing remnant cholesterol and LDL cholesterols as equals per 1 mmol/L (39 mg/dL) higher levels in the risk assessment of ASCVD; hence, triglyceride-rich lipoprotein-lowering therapies should also lower levels of non-HDL cholesterol to reduce ASCVD risk.

Endothelial Cell Receptors in Tissue Lipid Uptake and Metabolism.

Lipid uptake and metabolism are central to the function of organs such as heart, skeletal muscle, and adipose tissue. Although most heart energy derives from fatty acids (FAs), excess lipid accumulation can cause cardiomyopathy. Similarly, high delivery of cholesterol can initiate coronary artery atherosclerosis. Hearts and arteries-unlike liver and adrenals-have nonfenestrated capillaries and lipid accumulation in both health and disease requires lipid movement from the circulation across the endothelial barrier. This review summarizes recent in vitro and in vivo findings on the importance of endothelial cell receptors and uptake pathways in regulating FAs and cholesterol uptake in normal physiology and cardiovascular disease. We highlight clinical and experimental data on the roles of ECs in lipid supply to tissues, heart, and arterial wall in particular, and how this affects organ metabolism and function. Models of FA uptake into ECs suggest that receptor-mediated uptake predominates at low FA concentrations, such as during fasting, whereas FA uptake during lipolysis of chylomicrons may involve paracellular movement. Similarly, in the setting of an intact arterial endothelial layer, recent and historic data support a role for receptor-mediated processes in the movement of lipoproteins into the subarterial space. We conclude with thoughts on the need to better understand endothelial lipid transfer for fuller comprehension of the pathophysiology of hyperlipidemia, and lipotoxic diseases such as some forms of cardiomyopathy and atherosclerosis.

Dietary fat induced chylomicron-mediated LPS translocation in a bicameral Caco-2cell model.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence that dietary fat, especially saturated fat, promotes the translocation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) via chylomicron production in the gut. Chylomicrons can subsequently transport LPS to other parts of the body, where they can induce low-grade chronic inflammation that is linked to various metabolic and gut-related diseases. To identify promising (food) compounds that can prevent or ameliorate LPS-related low-grade inflammation, we developed and optimized a bicameral in vitro model for dietary fat-induced LPS translocation that closely mimics the in vivo situation and facilitates high-throughput screening. METHODS: Caco-2 cells were cultured in monolayers and differentiated to a small intestinal phenotype in 21 days. Thereafter, optimal conditions for fat-induced chylomicron production were determined by apical exposure of Caco-2 cells to a dilution range of in vitro digested palm oil and sunflower oil, optionally preceded by a 1-week apical FBS deprivation (cultured without apical fetal bovine serum). Chylomicron production was assessed by measuring basolateral levels of the chylomicron-related marker apolipoprotein B. Next, LPS was coincubated at various concentrations with the digested oils, and fat-induced LPS translocation to the basolateral side was assessed. RESULTS: We found that dietary fat-induced LPS translocation in Caco-2 cells was optimal after apical exposure to digested oils at a 1:50 dilution in combination with 750 ng/mL LPS, preceded by 1 week of apical FBS deprivation. Coincubation with the chylomicron blocker Pluronic L81 confirmed that fat-induced LPS translocation is mediated via chylomicron production in this Caco-2 cell model. CONCLUSION: We developed a robust Caco-2 cell model for dietary fat-induced LPS translocation that can be used for high-throughput screening of (food) compounds that can reduce LPS-related low-grade inflammation.

Apolipoprotein E content of VLDL limits LPL-mediated triglyceride hydrolysis.

High levels of circulating triglycerides (TGs), or hypertriglyceridemia, are key components of metabolic diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and CVD. As TGs are carried by lipoproteins in plasma, hypertriglyceridemia can result from overproduction or lack of clearance of TG-rich lipoproteins (TRLs) such as VLDLs. The primary driver of TRL clearance is TG hydrolysis mediated by LPL. LPL is regulated by numerous TRL protein components, including the cofactor apolipoprotein C-II, but it is not clear how their effects combine to impact TRL hydrolysis across individuals. Using a novel assay designed to mimic human plasma conditions in vitro, we tested the ability of VLDL from 15 normolipidemic donors to act as substrates for human LPL. We found a striking 10-fold difference in hydrolysis rates across individuals when the particles were compared on a protein or a TG basis. While VLDL TG contents moderately correlated with hydrolysis rate, we noticed substantial variations in non-apoB proteins within these particles by MS. The ability of LPL to hydrolyze VLDL TGs did not correlate with apolipoprotein C-II content, but it was strongly inversely correlated with apolipoprotein E (APOE) and, to a lesser extent, apolipoprotein A-II. Addition of exogenous APOE inhibited LPL lipolysis in a dose-dependent manner. The APOE3 and (particularly) APOE4 isoforms were effective at limiting LPL hydrolysis, whereas APOE2 was not. We conclude that APOE on VLDL modulates LPL activity and could be a relevant factor in the pathogenesis of metabolic disease.

Remnants, LDL, and the Quantification of Lipoprotein-Associated Risk in Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Implementation of intensive LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) lowering strategies and recognition of the role of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL) in atherosclerosis has prompted re-evaluation of the suitability of current lipid profile measurements for future clinical practice. RECENT FINDINGS: At low concentrations of LDL-C (< 1.8 mmol/l/70 mg/dl), the Friedewald equation yields estimates with substantial negative bias. New equations provide a more accurate means of calculating LDL-C. Recent reports indicate that the increase in risk per unit increment in TRL/remnant cholesterol may be greater than that of LDL-C. Hence, specific measurement of TRL/remnant cholesterol may be of importance in determining risk. Non-HDL cholesterol and plasma apolipoprotein B have been shown in discordancy analyses to identify individuals at high risk even when LDL-C is low. There is a need to adopt updated methods for determining LDL-C and to develop better biomarkers that more accurately reflect the abundance of TRL remnant particles.

GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1) Is Physiologically Relevant for Chylomicron Secretion Beyond Its Known Pharmacological Role.

[Figure: see text].

Effects of Evolocumab on the Postprandial Kinetics of Apo (Apolipoprotein) B100- and B48-Containing Lipoproteins in Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: Increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes is linked to elevated levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and their remnants. The metabolic effects of PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9) inhibitors on this dyslipidemia were investigated using stable-isotope-labeled tracers. Approach and Results: Triglyceride transport and the metabolism of apos (apolipoproteins) B48, B100, C-III, and E after a fat-rich meal were investigated before and on evolocumab treatment in 13 subjects with type 2 diabetes. Kinetic parameters were determined for the following: apoB48 in chylomicrons; triglyceride in VLDL1 (very low-density lipoprotein) and VLDL2; and apoB100 in VLDL1, VLDL2, IDL (intermediate-density lipoprotein), and LDL (low-density lipoprotein). Evolocumab did not alter the kinetics of apoB48 in chylomicrons or apoB100 or triglyceride in VLDL1. In contrast, the fractional catabolic rates of VLDL2-apoB100 and VLDL2-triglyceride were both increased by about 45%, which led to a 28% fall in the VLDL2 plasma level. LDL-apoB100 was markedly reduced by evolocumab, which was linked to metabolic heterogeneity in this fraction. Evolocumab increased clearance of the more rapidly metabolized LDL by 61% and decreased production of the more slowly cleared LDL by 75%. ApoC-III kinetics were not altered by evolocumab, but the apoE fractional catabolic rates increased by 45% and the apoE plasma level fell by 33%. The apoE fractional catabolic rates was associated with the decrease in VLDL2- and IDL-apoB100 concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Evolocumab had only minor effects on lipoproteins that are involved in triglyceride transport (chylomicrons and VLDL1) but, in contrast, had a profound impact on lipoproteins that carry cholesterol (VLDL2, IDL, LDL). Registration: URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT02948777.

Metabolism of Triglyceride-Rich Lipoproteins.

Triglycerides are critical lipids as they provide an energy source that is both compact and efficient. Due to its hydrophobic nature triglyceride molecules can pack together densely and so be stored in adipose tissue. To be transported in the aqueous medium of plasma, triglycerides have to be incorporated into lipoprotein particles along with other components such as cholesterol, phospholipid and associated structural and regulatory apolipoproteins. Here we discuss the physiology of normal triglyceride metabolism, and how impaired metabolism induces hypertriglyceridemia and its pathogenic consequences including atherosclerosis. We also discuss established and novel therapies to reduce triglyceride-rich lipoproteins.