The impact of social hierarchies on neural response to feedback evaluations after advice giving.

Advisors generally evaluate advisee-relevant feedback after advice giving. The response to these feedback-(1) whether the advice is accepted and (2) whether the advice is optimal-usually involves prestige. Prior literature has found that prestige is the basis by which individuals attain a superior status in the social hierarchy. However, whether advisors are motivated to attain a superior status when engaging in advice giving remains uncharacterized. Using event-related potentials, this study investigates how advisors evaluate feedback after giving advice to superior (vs. inferior) status advisees. A social hierarchy was first established based on two advisees (one was ranked as superior status and another as inferior status) as well as participants' performance in a dot-estimation task in which all participants were ranked as medium status. Participants then engaged in a game in which they were assigned roles as advisors to a superior or inferior status advisee. Afterward, the participants received feedback in two phases. In Phase 1, participants were told whether the advisees accepted the advice provided. In Phase 2, the participants were informed whether the advice they provided was correct. In these two phases, when the advisee was of superior status, participants exhibited stronger feedback-related negativity and P300 difference in response to (1) whether their advice was accepted, and (2) whether their advice was correct. Moreover, the P300 was notably larger when the participants' correct advice led to a gain for a superior-status advisee. In the context of advice giving, advisors are particularly motivated to attain a superior status when the feedback involving social hierarchies, which is reflected in higher sensitivity to feedback associated with superior status advisees at earlier and later stages during feedback evaluations in brains.

The impact of stress on the risk decision-making process.

The effect of stress on risk-taking or risk-averse behavior in decision-making has been inconclusive in previous research, with few studies revealing the underlying neural mechanisms. This study employed event-related potentials technique and combined a social cold pressor assessment test with a mental arithmetic task to induce stress responses, aiming to investigate the influence of exogenous stress on the risk decision-making process. Stress induction results indicated that, in addition to raising heart rate and blood pressure, stress responses were accompanied by enhanced negative emotions, diminished positive emotions, and alterations in neural activity. The outcomes of risk decision-making showed that stress did not significantly affect risk preference or time of choice but did reduce the feedback-related negativity/reward positivity, with a particularly significant effect observed for large outcomes. Stress also altered the amplitude of the P3 component, with stress decreasing the P3 value for winning outcomes relative to losing outcomes. The study suggests that understanding how stress affects risk preference should consider the emotional valence induced by stress. Contrary to the reward sensitivity hypothesis, stress weakened reward sensitivity. Stress led to changes in the allocation of cognitive resources for outcome evaluation: compared to negative outcomes, stress reduced cognitive resources for positive outcomes, which might be related to the enhanced negative emotions induced by stress. The study highlights the importance of focusing on the subjective emotional experience induced by stress in future research on stress and risk decision-making.

Processing abnormalities in monetary outcome evaluations among male individuals with opioid use disorder: evidence from feedback-related negativity.

Background: Numerous studies have highlighted the pivotal role of alterations in the monetary reward system in the development and maintenance of substance use disorder (SUD). Although these alterations have been well documented in various forms of SUD, the electrophysiological mechanisms specific to opioid use disorder (OUD) remain underexplored. Understanding these mechanisms is critical for developing targeted interventions and advancing theories of addiction specific to opioid use.Objectives: To explore abnormalities in monetary reward outcome processing in males with OUD. We hypothesized that control individuals would show higher feedback-related negativity (FRN) to losses, unlike those in the OUD group, where FRN to losses and gains would not differ significantly.Methods: Fifty-seven participants (29 male individuals with OUD [heroin] and 28 male controls) were evaluated. A combination of the monetary incentive delay task (MIDT) and event-related potential (ERP) technology was used to investigate electrophysiological differences in monetary reward feedback processing between the OUD and healthy control groups.Results: We observed a significant interaction between group (control vs. OUD) and monetary outcome (loss vs. gain), indicated by p < .05 and η2p = 0.116. Specifically, control participants showed stronger negative FRN to losses than gains (p < .05), unlike the OUD group (p > .05).Conclusion: This study's FRN data indicate that males with OUD show altered processing of monetary rewards, marked by reduced sensitivity to loss. These findings offer electrophysiological insights into why males with OUD may pursue drugs despite potential economic downsides.

Neurophysiological Correlates of Near-Wins in Gambling: A Systematic Literature Review.

Identification of specific patterns of brain activity related to problem gambling may provide a deeper understanding of its underlying mechanisms, highlighting the importance of neurophysiological studies to better understand development and persistence of gambling behavior. The patterns of cognitive functioning have been investigated through electroencephalography (EEG) studies based on the near-win/near-miss (NW) effect. The main goal of the present study was to evaluate the neurophysiological basis of NWs and their modulation by gambling problems through a systematic review of event-related potentials (ERP) studies elicited by feedback events. The review followed the recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA). A total of 15 studies were included, 12 comprising non-problem gamblers (NPGs) and three comparing problem gamblers (PGs) with matched controls. For the P300 component, the win outcome elicited a larger amplitude than the other outcomes (NW and loss), followed by the NW outcome, which elicited a larger amplitude than loss in some studies. For feedback-related negativity (FRN), the loss outcome evoked a more negative amplitude in several studies, despite eliciting a similar amplitude to NW outcomes in others. For PGs, the NW outcome evoked a higher amplitude of P300 than loss, while NPGs showed a similar amplitude to both outcomes. The present review gathered information from different sources and provides a consistent view of the different studies. However, studies lack systematic and robust methodologies, leading to inconsistent results and making it difficult to reach any definitive conclusions.

Getting off track: Cortical feedback processing network modulated by continuous error signal during target-feedback mismatch.

Performance monitoring and feedback processing - especially in the wake of erroneous outcomes - represent a crucial aspect of everyday life, allowing us to deal with imminent threats in the short term but also promoting necessary behavioral adjustments in the long term to avoid future conflicts. Over the last thirty years, research extensively analyzed the neural correlates of processing discrete error stimuli, unveiling the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) as two main components of the cognitive response. However, the connection between the ERN/Pe and distinct stages of error processing, ranging from action monitoring to subsequent corrective behavior, remains ambiguous. Furthermore, mundane actions such as steering a vehicle already transgress the scope of discrete erroneous events and demand fine-tuned feedback control, and thus, the processing of continuous error signals - a topic scarcely researched at present. We analyzed two electroencephalography datasets to investigate the processing of continuous erroneous signals during a target tracking task, employing feedback in various levels and modalities. We observed significant differences between correct (slightly delayed) and erroneous feedback conditions in the larger one of the two datasets that we analyzed, both in sensor and source space. Furthermore, we found strong error-induced modulations that appeared consistent across datasets and error conditions, indicating a clear order of engagement of specific brain regions that correspond to individual components of error processing.

Contrasting frontal cortical responses to food versus money rewards across BMI groups.

Previous research has linked obesity with an altered perception of rewards. This study aimed to contrast frontal cortical activities across body mass index (BMI) groups, in responding to differential rewards (monetary versus food). A total of 60 male participants (27.43 ± 6.07 years of age; 21 normal weight [BMI: 18.5-24.9 kg·m-2]; 20 overweight [BMI: 25.0-29.9 kg·m-2]; and 19 individuals with obesity [BMI ≥ 30 kg·m-2]) were tested for their response bias towards food and money rewards using the Probabilistic Reward Task (PRT), while their frontal cortical responses were recorded using electroencephalography (EEG). The feedback-related negativity (FRN), a reliable measure of reward valuation and learning, was calculated for food (FRN(Food)) and money (FRN(Money)). Results indicate a left-lateralised frontal cortical activity associated with the food reward condition, in the group of overweight and obesity. In contrast, a right-lateralisation was observed in the money reward condition only in the group with obesity. More specifically, FRN(Food) was shown to significantly differ between left and right frontal cortical areas among individuals with obesity (p = 0.035) and overweight (p = 0.012), but not in normal-weight individuals (p = 0.153). Additionally, results revealed that FRN(Food) and FRN(Money) were significantly different for individuals with obesity (p = 0.019), but such a significant difference was not evident in the overweight and normal-weight individuals (p ≥ 0.05). These findings offer intriguing new insights into neuropsychological differentiation across BMI groups, adding to the understanding of obesity-related behaviour.

The Event-Related Potentials Responding to Outcome Valence and Expectancy Violation during Feedback Processing.

Feedback-related negativity (FRN) is believed to encode reward prediction error (RPE), a term describing whether the outcome is better or worse than expected. However, some studies suggest that it may reflect unsigned prediction error (UPE) instead. Some disagreement remains as to whether FRN is sensitive to the interaction of outcome valence and prediction error (PE) or merely responsive to the absolute size of PE. Moreover, few studies have compared FRN in appetitive and aversive domains to clarify the valence effect or examine PE's quantitative modulation. To investigate the impact of valence and parametrical PE on FRN, we varied the prediction and feedback magnitudes within a probabilistic learning task in valence (gain and loss domains, Experiment 1) and non-valence contexts (pure digits, Experiment 2). Experiment 3 was identical to Experiment 1 except that some blocks emphasized outcome valence, while others highlighted predictive accuracy. Experiments 1 and 2 revealed a UPE encoder; Experiment 3 found an RPE encoder when valence was emphasized and a UPE encoder when predictive accuracy was highlighted. In this investigation, we demonstrate that FRN is sensitive to outcome valence and expectancy violation, exhibiting a preferential response depending on the dimension that is emphasized.

Electrophysiological investigation of reward anticipation and outcome evaluation during slot machine play.

Slot machines are a popular form of gambling, offering a tractable way to experimentally model reward processes. This study used a 3-reel slot paradigm to assess psychologically distinct phases of reward processing, reflecting anticipation, and early- and late-stage outcome processing. EEG measures of winning, nearly missing (a losing outcome revealed at the final, third reel), and "totally" missing (a losing outcome revealed earlier, at the second reel) were collected from healthy adults (n=54). Condition effects were evaluated in: i) event-related potential (ERP) components reflecting anticipatory attention (stimulus preceding negativity, SPN) and outcome processing (reward positivity, RewP and late-positive potential, LPP) and ii) total power and phase synchrony of theta and delta band oscillations. Behaviorally, trial initiation was fastest after a near miss outcome and slowest after a winning outcome. As expected, a significant SPN was observed for possible wins (AA) vs. total misses (AB), consistent with reward anticipation. Larger win (AAA) vs. near miss (AAB) amplitudes were observed for the RewP; LPP amplitudes were largest for wins (AAA), intermediate for near misses (AAB), and smallest for total misses (ABC), reflecting significant early (RewP) and late-stage (LPP) outcome processing effects. There was an effect of reel position on the RewP, with larger amplitude in the final reel (AAA-AAB) relative to the 2nd-reel locked difference waves (AA-AB). Across all outcomes, near misses elicited the largest and most phase-synchronized theta responses, while wins elicited larger and more phase-synchronized delta responses than total misses, with delta band measures not distinguishing between near misses and wins. . Phase locking measures contrasting win vs. near miss delta and theta synchronization, within time windows corresponding to ERP measurements, covaried with RewP, but not SPN or LPP, amplitude. Lastly, EEG measures showed differential relationships with age and self-reported consummatory pleasure. In the context of slot machine play, where reward anticipation and attainment place minimal demands on effort and skill, ERP and time-frequency methods capture distinct neurophysiological signatures of reward anticipation and outcome processing.

Monetary payoffs modulate reciprocity expectations in outcome evaluations: An event-related potential study.

Choosing cooperation or aggression relies on reciprocity preferences which refer to the tendency of an individual to return cooperative or aggressive action for cooperative or aggressive action (i.e., positive or negative reciprocity preference). The reciprocity preference is positively correlated with reciprocity expectation, wherein individuals with stronger reciprocity preferences may have higher expectations than future cooperative or aggressive behavior should be delivered by beneficiaries (positive reciprocity expectation) or victims (negative reciprocity expectation). Although previous studies have demonstrated that the presence of monetary payoffs enhances reciprocity preferences, the modulation of monetary payoffs in reciprocity expectations remains unclear. Using event-related potentials (ERPs), we examined how monetary payoffs modulated reciprocity expectations by adopting the Chicken game. Participants were asked to choose between cooperation and aggression with a putative opponent in the Chicken game involving the monetary (vs. non-monetary) payoffs. Participants' electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded when they saw the opponent's cooperative or aggressive decision. Results showed that compared to the non-monetary payoff trials, the feedback-related negativity (FRN) effect in response to the opponent's decisions was stronger following the participant's aggressive decision in the monetary payoff trials, whereas P3 was insensitive to monetary payoffs. These findings suggest that monetary payoffs heighten expectations of negative reciprocity at the earlier and automatic outcome processing stage.

Selective Devaluation Affects the Processing of Preferred Rewards.

The present study investigated whether the representation of subjective preferences in the event-related potential is manipulable through selective devaluation, i.e., the consumption of a specific food item until satiety. Thirty-four participants completed a gambling task in which they chose between virtual doors to find one of three snack items, representing a high, medium, or low preference outcome as defined by individual desire-to-eat ratings. In one of two test sessions, they underwent selective devaluation of the high preference outcome. In the other, they completed the task on an empty stomach. Consistent with previous findings, averaged across sessions, amplitudes were increased for more preferred rewards in the time windows of P2, late FRN, and P300. As hypothesised, we also found a selective devaluation effect for the high preference outcome in the P300 time window, reflected in a decrease in amplitude. The present results provide evidence for modulations of reward processing not only by individual factors, such as subjective preferences, but also by the current motivational state. Importantly, the present data suggest that selective devaluation effects in the P300 may be a promising tool to further characterise altered valuation of food rewards in the context of eating disorders and obesity.

Boredom proneness is associated with noisy decision-making, not risk-taking.

Previous research shows that individuals who tend to get bored frequently and intensely-the highly boredom prone-are more likely to engage in risky behaviors. However, these studies are based largely on self-reports. Here we address this gap and suggest that noisy decision-making (DM) is a potential driver for this relationship between boredom proneness and risk-taking. In Study 1, eighty-six participants completed the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) while EEG was recorded. We found blunted feedback processing with higher boredom proneness, as indexed by reduced feedback-P3 amplitudes. Risk taking, as indexed by the BART, was not higher in the highly boredom prone. In Study 2a (N = 404) we directly tested the noisy DM hypothesis in an online sample using a binary choice task, and found that with higher boredom proneness, participants were more likely to alternate between choices on a trial-to-trial basis, but were not more likely to choose the risky alternative. These findings were replicated in a new sample (Study 2b), and extended to the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; Study 3). In the IGT we found increased choice switching and reduced feedback sensitivity with higher boredom proneness. Once again, higher risk taking as indexed by the IGT was not evident in the highly boredom prone. Overall, our findings suggest that boredom proneness is associated with noisy decision-making (i.e., a tendency to alternate more between choice options regardless of risk level), and not risk-seeking per se. That is, the highly boredom prone are not necessarily attracted to risks, but rather, may be insensitive to risks due to reduced feedback sensitivity.

Do food images as action outcomes evoke a reward positivity?

Favourable compared to unfavourable action outcomes typically evoke a positive-going amplitude shift at frontomedial electrodes in the scalp-recorded electroencephalogram. Since prior studies on this Reward Positivity (RewP) have heavily relied on monetary outcomes, it is still debated whether the RewP is also elicited by other kinds of reward. We addressed this issue by focussing on food as another major category of daily reward. Twenty-eight healthy participants completed a decision task, in which they received images of personally liked, neutral or disliked food as outcome stimuli. Importantly, single trial outcomes were of relevance for a prolonged task goal (i.e., obtaining the liked foods and avoiding the disliked foods). The observed amplitude pattern did not correspond to the typical RewP effect observed for monetary outcomes. In particular, disliked foods evoked a similar positive-going amplitude shift as liked foods when compared to neutral foods. Exploratory analyses indicated that this pattern may result from a spatiotemporal overlap between a potential RewP response and other, emotion-related ERP components (i.e., the Early Posterior Negativity and the Late Positive Potential). We discuss our findings with regard to theoretical and methodological implications for the usage of the RewP in the study of reward processing.

EEG correlates of physical effort and reward processing during reinforcement learning.

Effort-based decision making is often modeled using subjective value, a function of reward discounted by effort. We asked whether EEG event-related potential (ERP) correlates of reward processing are also modulated by physical effort. Human participants performed a task in which they were required to accurately produce target levels of muscle activation to receive rewards. Quadriceps muscle activation was recorded with electromyography (EMG) during isometric knee extension. On a given trial, the target muscle activation required either low or high effort. The effort was determined probabilistically according to a binary choice, such that the responses were associated with 20% and 80% probability of high effort. This contingency could only be learned through experience, and it reversed periodically. Binary reinforcement feedback depended on accurately producing the target muscle activity. Participants adaptively avoided effort by switching responses more frequently after choices that resulted in hard effort. Feedback after participants' choices that revealed the resulting effort requirement did not elicit modulation of the feedback-related negativity/reward positivity (FRN/RP). However, the neural response to reinforcement outcome after effort production was increased by preceding physical effort. Source decomposition revealed separable early and late positive deflections contributing to the ERP. The main effect of reward outcome, characteristic of the FRN/RP, loaded onto the earlier component, whereas the reward × effort interaction was observed only in the later positivity, which resembled the P300. Thus, retrospective effort modulates reward processing. This may explain paradoxical behavioral findings whereby rewards requiring more effort to obtain can become more powerful reinforcers.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Choices probabilistically determined the physical effort requirements for a subsequent task, and reward depended on task performance. Feedback revealing whether choices resulted in easy or hard effort did not elicit reinforcement learning signals. However, the neural responses to reinforcement were modulated by preceding effort. Thus, effort itself was not treated as loss or punishment, but it affected the responses to subsequent reinforcement outcomes. This may explain how effort can enhance the motivational effect of reward.

Processing of performance errors predicts memory formation: Enhanced feedback-related negativities for corrected versus repeated errors in an associative learning paradigm.

Learning from errors or negative feedback is crucial for adaptive behavior. FMRI studies have demonstrated enhanced anterior cingulate cortex activity for errors that were later corrected versus repeated errors even when a substantial delay between the error and the opportunity to correct was introduced. We aimed at identifying the electrophysiological correlates of these processes by investigating the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and stimulus-locked P3. Participants had to learn and recall the location of 2-digit targets over consecutive rounds. Feedback was provided in two steps, first a color change indicated a correct or incorrect response (feedback phase) followed by presentation of the correct digit information (re-encoding phase). Behaviorally, participants improved performance from the first to the third round. FRN amplitudes time-locked to feedback were enhanced for corrected compared to repeated errors. The P3 in response to re-encoding did not differ between the two error types. The finding that FRN amplitudes positively predicted memory performance is consistent with the idea that the FRN reflects prediction errors and the need for enhanced cognitive control. Interestingly, this happens early during feedback processing and not at a later time point when re-encoding of correct information takes place. The prediction error signal reflected in the FRN is usually elicited by performance errors, but may thus also play a role in preparing/optimizing the system for memory formation. This supports the existence of a close link between action control and memory processes even when there is a substantial delay between error feedback and the opportunity to correct the error.

Your losses are mine: The influence of empathic concern on evaluative processing of others' outcomes.

Neural responses to others' decision-making outcomes can be modulated by many social factors. Using the event-related potential (ERP) technique, we explored the neural mechanisms of empathic concern modulating evaluative processing of others' outcomes. Participants were asked to perform a gambling task for three beneficiaries: themselves and two strangers. One stranger was an economically underprivileged student requiring help (high-empathy condition); the other stranger was a student with no upsetting information to induce empathic concern (low-empathy condition). ERP results showed that the valence effect of the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was larger when participants exhibited high empathic concern than when they did not. The FRN responses to strangers' outcomes in the high-empathy condition were as strong as those to their own outcomes. The P300 showed no differences between the low- and high-empathy conditions. These findings indicate that empathic concern could modulate the early stage of outcome processing, implying empathic emotional/altruistic motivational impacts of others' outcomes.

Interpersonal relationships modulate outcome evaluation in a social comparison context: The pain and pleasure of intimacy.

Previous research has revealed that interpersonal relationships and social comparisons play important roles in evaluating outcomes. To our knowledge, how interpersonal relationships influence the process of outcome evaluations in a social comparison context remains largely unclear. In the current study, participants engaged in a simple gambling task with an acquaintance or a stranger and received outcome feedback. Behavioral results showed that participants' satisfaction level was sensitive to the outcome of their fellow players when participants won. In this condition, the satisfaction level was greater when their fellow players won rather than lost. Moreover, the satisfaction level was greater when their friends won compared with when a stranger won. Event-related potential (ERP) results showed that when participants won, the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was more negative going for other's losses than for other's gains. Moreover, the FRN was also more negative going for a stranger's gains than a friend's gains. In contrast, in the self-loss condition, the FRN was more negative going for other's gains than for other's losses regardless of the type of interpersonal relationship. These FRN findings indicate that the experience of other's outcomes is sensitive to participants' own outcomes. Importantly, the interpersonal relationship only showed its influence when both the self and others received monetary gains. Finally, the P300 registered participants' attention resource allocation toward monetary gains for themselves and for others, which was unaffected by the interpersonal relationship. This work reveals that outcome evaluation in various social comparison contexts is sensitive to the difference in interpersonal relationship in its early stage, labeled by the FRN.

Neural signatures of reward and sensory error feedback processing in motor learning.

At least two distinct processes have been identified by which motor commands are adapted according to movement-related feedback: reward-based learning and sensory error-based learning. In sensory error-based learning, mappings between sensory targets and motor commands are recalibrated according to sensory error feedback. In reward-based learning, motor commands are associated with subjective value, such that successful actions are reinforced. We designed two tasks to isolate reward- and sensory error-based motor adaptation, and we used electroencephalography in humans to identify and dissociate the neural correlates of reward and sensory error feedback processing. We designed a visuomotor rotation task to isolate sensory error-based learning that was induced by altered visual feedback of hand position. In a reward learning task, we isolated reward-based learning induced by binary reward feedback that was decoupled from the visual target. A fronto-central event-related potential called the feedback-related negativity (FRN) was elicited specifically by binary reward feedback but not sensory error feedback. A more posterior component called the P300 was evoked by feedback in both tasks. In the visuomotor rotation task, P300 amplitude was increased by sensory error induced by perturbed visual feedback and was correlated with learning rate. In the reward learning task, P300 amplitude was increased by reward relative to nonreward and by surprise regardless of feedback valence. We propose that during motor adaptation the FRN specifically reflects a reward-based learning signal whereas the P300 reflects feedback processing that is related to adaptation more generally. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We studied the event-related potentials evoked by feedback stimuli during motor adaptation tasks that isolate reward- and sensory error-based learning mechanisms. We found that the feedback-related negativity was specifically elicited by binary reward feedback, whereas the P300 was observed in both tasks. These results reveal neural processes associated with different learning mechanisms and elucidate which classes of errors, from a computational standpoint, elicit the feedback-related negativity and P300.

High sensation seeking is associated with behavioral and neural insensitivity to increased negative outcomes during decision-making under uncertainty.

High-level sensation seeking (HSS) has been linked to a range of risky and unhealthy behavior; however, the neural mechanisms underlying such linkage remain unclear. In the present study, we used event-related potential (ERP) with a Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) to investigate how sensation seeking modulates brain responses to sequential decision-making with variable reward/loss outcome magnitudes. Behavior data showed that decision-making behavior was significantly affected by the large compared with the small magnitude of monetary outcome in the BART for individuals with low-level sensation seeking (LSS), but not for individuals with HSS. Similarly, HSS individuals displayed no changes in feedback-related negativity (FRN) in response to negative outcomes from decision-making with large or small reward/loss magnitudes, whereas LSS individuals showed greater FRN in response to decision-making with large loss magnitude than those with small loss magnitude. In addition, FRN amplitude differences correlated with decision-making behavior changes from small to large outcome magnitude for LSS, while such correlation was not observed for HSS. These findings suggest that a high-level of sensation seeking is associated with behavioral and neural insensitivity to increased negative outcome during decision-making under uncertainty, which may lead to greater risky behavior in these individuals when facing potential loss.

Meditation experience predicts negative reinforcement learning and is associated with attenuated FRN amplitude.

Focused attention meditation (FAM) practices are cognitive control exercises where meditators learn to maintain focus and attention in the face of distracting stimuli. Previous studies have shown that FAM is both activating and causing plastic changes to the mesolimbic dopamine system and some of its target structures, particularly the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and striatum. Feedback-based learning also depends on these systems and is known to be modulated by tonic dopamine levels. Capitalizing on previous findings that FAM practices seem to cause dopamine release, the present study shows that FAM experience predicts learning from negative feedback on a probabilistic selection task. Furthermore, meditators exhibited attenuated feedback-related negativity (FRN) as compared with nonmeditators and this effect scales with meditation experience. Given that reinforcement learning and FRN are modulated by dopamine levels, a possible explanation for our findings is that FAM practice causes persistent increases in tonic dopamine levels which scale with amount of practice, thus altering feedback processing.

Self-affirmation enhances the processing of uncertainty: An event-related potential study.

We proposed that self-affirmation can endow people with more cognitive resource to cope with uncertainty. We tested this possibility with an event-related potential (ERP) study by examining how self-affirmation influences ambiguous feedback processing in a simple gambling task, which was used to investigate risk decision-making. We assigned 48 participants randomly to the affirmation and non-affirmation (i.e., control) groups. All participants accepted the manipulation first and then completed the gambling task with an electroencephalogram (EEG) recording, in which participants might receive a positive (winning), negative (losing), or ambiguous (unknown valence) outcome after they made a choice. We considered both the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and P3 components elicited by the outcome feedback, which reflected the amount of cognitive resources being invested in the early and late stages of the outcome feedback processing, respectively. ERP results showed that ambiguous feedback elicited a larger FRN among affirmed participants than unaffirmed participants but exerted no influence on the P3. This finding suggests that self-affirmation may help coping with uncertainty by enhancing the early processing of uncertainty.