Cilia density and flow velocity affect alignment of motile cilia from brain cells.

In many organs, thousands of microscopic 'motile cilia' beat in a coordinated fashion generating fluid flow. Physiologically, these flows are important in both development and homeostasis of ciliated tissues. Combining experiments and simulations, we studied how cilia from brain tissue align their beating direction. We subjected cilia to a broad range of shear stresses, similar to the fluid flow that cilia themselves generate, in a microfluidic setup. In contrast to previous studies, we found that cilia from mouse ependyma respond and align to these physiological shear stress at all maturation stages. Cilia align more easily earlier in maturation, and we correlated this property with the increase in multiciliated cell density during maturation. Our numerical simulations show that cilia in densely packed clusters are hydrodynamically screened from the external flow, in agreement with our experimental observation. Cilia carpets create a hydrodynamic screening that reduces the susceptibility of individual cilia to external flows.

Adhesive plasticity among populations of purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus).

Sea urchins native to the nearshore open coast experience periods of high, repeated wave forces that can result in dislodgement. To remain attached while clinging and locomoting across rocky substrates, sea urchins use adhesive tube feet. Purple sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) adhere to a variety of rock substrates (e.g. sandstone, mudstone, granite), and display morphological plasticity (skeletal morphology) to native substrate. We tested the hypothesis that their adhesive system is also plastic and varies as a function of native population and substrate. The results of our study support our hypothesis. Sea urchins from sandstone adhere less strongly to most substrates than those native to mudstone and granite rock. Sandstone produced the lowest whole animal adhesive force values across all populations, suggesting that this rock type is particularly challenging for sea urchins to adhere to. The number of adhesive tube feet that failed during experimental trials and the area used by sea urchins to attach, matches closely with whole animal adhesive force values: higher forces resulted in more tube foot failure and larger attachment area. On artificial substrates (glass and Plexiglass), differences in adhesion among populations was consistent with differences in adhesion on rock substrates except on glass, where sea urchins native to sandstone adhered more strongly to glass than any other substrate tested. To our knowledge, this study is the first to describe population-level plasticity in a biological adhesive system related to native substrate, and has significant implications for sea urchin ecology, behavior and functional morphology.

Mechanical properties of the wave-swept kelp Egregia menziesii change with season, growth rate and herbivore wounds.

The resistance of macroalgae to damage by hydrodynamic forces depends on the mechanical properties of their tissues. Although factors such as water-flow environment, algal growth rate and damage by herbivores have been shown to influence various material properties of macroalgal tissues, the interplay of these factors as they change seasonally and affect algal mechanical performance has not been worked out. We used the perennial kelp Egregia menziesii to study how the material properties of the rachis supporting a frond changed seasonally over a 2 year period, and how those changes correlated with seasonal patterns of the environment, growth rate and herbivore load. Rachis tissue became stiffer, stronger and less extensible with age (distance from the meristem). Thus, slowly growing rachises were stiffer, stronger and tougher than rapidly growing ones. Growth rates were highest in spring and summer when upwelling and long periods of daylight occurred. Therefore, rachis tissue was most resistant to damage in the winter, when waves were large as a result of seasonal storms. Herbivory was greatest during summer, when rachis growth rates were high. Unlike other macroalgae, E. menziesii did not respond to herbivore damage by increasing rachis tissue strength, but rather by growing in width so that the cross-sectional area of the wounded rachis was increased. The relative timing of environmental factors that affect growth rates (e.g. upwelling supply of nutrients, daylight duration) and of those that can damage macroalgae (e.g. winter storms, summer herbivore outbreaks) can influence the material properties and thus the mechanical performance of macroalgae.

Comparison of filtration mechanisms of food and industrial grade TiO2 nanoparticles.

The removal of food and industrial grade titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles through drinking water filtration was assessed via direct visualization of an in situ 2-D micromodel. The goal of this research was to determine whether variances in surface composition, aggregate size, and ionic strength result in different transport and deposition processes in porous media. Food and industrial grade TiO2 particles were characterized by measuring their hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, and zero point of charge before introduction into the 2-D micromodel. The removal efficiency as a function of position on the collector surface was calculated from direct visualization measurements. Notably, food grade TiO2 had a lower removal efficiency when compared with industrial grade. The difference in removal efficiency between the two particle types could be attributed to the higher stability (as indicated by the larger zeta potential values) of the food grade particles, which lead to a reduced aggregate size when compared to the industrial grade particles. This removal efficiency trend was most pronounced in the rear stagnation point, due to the high contribution of hydrodynamic forces at that point. It could be inferred from the results presented herein that particle removal strategies should be based on particle aggregate size and surface charge. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Biomechanical analysis of little penguins' underwater locomotion from the free-ranging dive data.

Penguins are proficient swimmers, and their survival depends on their ability to catch prey. The diving behaviour of these fascinating birds should then minimize the associated energy cost. For the first time, the energy cost of penguin dives is computed from the free-ranging dive data, on the basis of an existing biomechanical model. Time-resolved acceleration and depth data collected for 300 dives of little penguins (Eudyptula minor) are specifically employed to compute the bird dive angles and swimming speeds, which are needed for the energy estimate. We find that the numerically obtained energy cost by using the free-ranging dive data is not far from the minimum cost predicted by the model. The outcome, therefore, supports the physical soundness of the chosen model; however, it also suggests that, for closer agreement, one should consider previously neglected effects, such as those due to water currents and those associated with motion unsteadiness. Additionally, from the free-ranging dive data, we calculate hydrodynamic forces and non-dimensional indicators of propulsion performance - Strouhal and Reynolds numbers. The obtained values further confirm that little penguins employ efficient propulsion mechanisms, in agreement with previous investigations.

Enhancing hydrodynamic forces through miniaturized control of square cylinders using the lattice Boltzmann method.

This study investigates the influence of small control cylinders on the fluid dynamics around a square cylinder using the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM). Varying the gaps (L) between the main and control cylinders from 0 to 6, four distinct flow regimes are identified: the solo body regime (SBR), shear layer reattachment (SLR), suppressed fully developed flow (SFDF), and intermittent shedding (IS). The presence of control cylinders results in significant reductions in flow-induced forces, with drag coefficient (CD) and root mean square values of drag and lift coefficients (CDrms and CLrms) decreasing by approximately 31%, 90%, and 81%, respectively. The SFDF flow regime exhibits the lowest fluid forces compared to other regimes. The effects of tiny control cylinders on the fluid flow characteristics of a square cylinder are examined using the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) in this research work. The gaps (L) between the main and control cylinders are varied in the range from 0 to 6. The size of each control cylinder is equal to one-fifth of the primary cylinder. According to the findings, there are four distinct flow regimes as the gap spacing varies: solo body regime (SBR), shear layer reattachment (SLR), suppressed fully developed flow (SFDF), and intermittent shedding (IS) for gap spacing ranges 0 ≤ L ≤ 0.2, 0.3 ≤ L ≤ 0.9, 1 ≤ L ≤ 3, and 3.2 ≤ L ≤ 6, respectively. Additionally, it has been noted that the amplitude of variable lift force is reduced when the gap separation between the main and control cylinders is increased. When compared to solo cylinder values, it is found that the presence of small control cylinders in the flow field results in a considerable reduction of flow-induced forces. The SFDF flow regime was determined to have the lowest fluid forces compared to the other flow regimes studied. Our findings highlight the efficacy of small control cylinders in mitigating flow-induced forces and controlling flow characteristics. The LBM proves to be a valuable computational technique for such fluid flow problems.

Indefatigable: an erect coralline alga is highly resistant to fatigue.

Intertidal organisms are subjected to intense hydrodynamic forces as waves break on the shore. These repeated insults can cause a plant or animal's structural materials to fatigue and fail, even though no single force would be sufficient to break the organism. Indeed, the survivorship and maximum size of at least one species of seaweed is set by the accumulated effects of small forces rather than the catastrophic imposition of a single lethal force. One might suppose that fatigue would be especially potent in articulated coralline algae, in which the strain of the entire structure is concentrated in localized joints, the genicula. However, previous studies of joint morphology suggest an alternative hypothesis. Each geniculum is composed of a single tier of cells, which are attached at their ends to the calcified segments of the plant (the intergenicula) but have minimal connection to each other along their lengths. This lack of neighborly attachment potentially allows the weak interfaces between cells to act as 'crack stoppers', inhibiting the growth of fatigue cracks. We tested this possibility by repeatedly loading fronds of Calliarthron cheilosporioides, a coralline alga common on wave-washed shores in California. When repeatedly loaded to 50-80% of its breaking strength, C. cheilosporioides commonly survives more than a million stress cycles, with a record of 51 million. We show how this extraordinary fatigue resistance interacts with the distribution of wave-induced water velocities to set the limits to size in this species.

Biomechanical framework for the inverse dynamic analysis of swimming using hydrodynamic forces from swumsuit.

This study aims to integrate an open-source software capable of estimating hydrodynamic forces solely from kinematic data with a full-body biomechanical model of the human body to enable inverse dynamic analyses of swimmers. To demonstrate the methodology, intersegmental forces and joint torques of the lower limbs were computed for a six-beat front crawl swimming motion, acquired at LABIOMEP-UP. The hydrodynamic forces obtained compare well with existing numerical literature. The intersegmental forces and joint torques obtained increase from distal to proximal joints. Overall, the results are consistent with the limited literature on swimming biomechanics, which provides confidence in the presented methodology.

A numerical study on the ship-bank interaction at various water depths of a surface ship.

Ship maneuvering in restricted waters is a significant challenge in navigation safety due to the complex flow around the ship. In particular, when a ship travels close to a lateral bank and shallow water, the hydrodynamic interaction forces significantly influence the maneuvering motion of the ship. Maneuverability in restricted water is even more difficult for an autonomous surface ship. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the effects of maneuvering near a bank and in shallow water for an autonomous surface ship. In this study, maneuvering simulations considering the bank effect at various water depths are implemented based on hydrodynamic forces estimated using computational fluid dynamics simulation. First, virtual captive model tests at various water depths and simulations of various lateral distances to the banks are performed to estimate the hydrodynamic forces using computational fluid dynamics simulation. The simulation method is validated by comparing the simulation results of the static drift test in deep water with the measured one in the experimental method. Second, the maneuvering simulations for the turning circle test and zig-zag test at various water depths are conducted using the obtained hydrodynamic coefficients. Then, the maneuvering simulations in deep water are compared with the experiment results, and a good agreement is observed. Finally, the simulation considering the bank effects at various water depths is evaluated and discussed.

The history force on bubbles translational motion in an acoustic field.

In this study, the translational trajectory of bubble in an ultrasonic standing wave at 22.4 kHz was observed using an imaging system with a high-speed video camera. This allowed the velocities of bubble be measured when the acoustic pressure at 20 kPa, 40 kPa and 60 kPa, which applied to indirectly measured the history force by using the acoustic and hydrodynamic forces balance model. It shown that bubbles driven at low acoustic pressure, the history force close to zero, and with the pressure increase the history force change to large, the ratio of FH/FQS from 0.33 at 40 kPa to 1.73 at 60 kPa, the result is different with prior research when the Reynolds numbers is large, and useful in the understanding of bubble moments in an acoustic field.

Hydrodynamics of a twisting slender swimmer.

Sea snakes propel themselves by lateral deformation waves moving backwards along their bodies faster than they swim. In contrast to typical anguilliform swimmers, however, their swimming is characterized by exaggerated torsional waves that lead the lateral ones. The effect of torsional waves on hydrodynamic forces generated by an anguilliform swimmer is the subject matter of this study. The forces, and the power needed to sustain them, are found analytically using the framework of the slender (elongated) body theory. It is shown that combinations of torsional waves and angle of attack can generate both thrust and lift, whereas combinations of torsional and lateral waves can generate lift of the same magnitude as thrust. Generation of lift comes at a price of increasing tail amplitude, but otherwise carries practically no energetic penalty.

Evolution of sedimentary organic matter in a small river estuary after the typhoon process: A case study of Quanzhou Bay.

Extreme weather events occur frequently under global warming scenarios and have an important impact on the global carbon cycle. Compared to large rivers, small rivers are more sensitive to extreme weather events (such as typhoons). This paper reports the results of a study carried out in the Quanzhou Bay to explore the evolution of small river estuarine sedimentary organic matter after typhoon process using measurements of the grain-size, total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN) and δ13C of surface sediment samples collected 2-3 days and a month, respectively, after typhoon Matmo landing in 2014. The results show that the contents of TOC and TN in the sediments, which gradually decrease from the estuary to the outer sea of Quanzhou Bay, decreased approximately 13% and 16%, respectively, a month later compared with 2-3 days after typhoon landing. The significant decrease occurred in the Jinjiang River estuary and along the South Channel of Quanzhou Bay, while the North Channel and Luoyangjiang River estuary retained high levels of TOC and TN. The results of δ13C values and TOC/TN ratios show that the organic matter in the sediment of the Quanzhou Bay was a mixture derived from C3 terrestrial plants and marine algae. The terrestrial organic matter was mainly deposited in the Jinjiang River estuary 2-3 days after typhoon landing and then spread along the tidal channel to the outer sea a month later. It indicates that the hydrodynamic forces stirred sedimentary organic matters that were input and settled during typhoon, and transported later along the North and South Channel to the outer sea. Some of those organic matters were accumulated in the North Channel during the transport process. The results provide significant meaning for the carbon cycle and material flux study on the coastal and margin seas.

Consequences of Glomerular Hyperfiltration: The Role of Physical Forces in the Pathogenesis of Chronic Kidney Disease in Diabetes and Obesity.

BACKGROUND: Glomerular hyperfiltration (GH) is a hallmark of renal dysfunction in diabetes and obesity. Recent clinical trials demonstrated that SGLT2 inhibitors are renoprotective, possibly by abating hyperfiltration. The present review considers the current evidence for a cause-to-effect relationship between hyperfiltration-related physical forces and the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD). SUMMARY: Glomerular hyperfiltration is associated with glomerular and tubular hypertrophy. Hyperfiltration is mainly due to an increase in glomerular capillary pressure, which increases tensile stress applied to the capillary wall structures. In addition, the increased ultrafiltrate flow into Bowman's space heightens shear stress on the podocyte foot processes and body surface. These mechanical stresses lead to an increase in glomerular basement membrane (GBM) length and to podocyte hypertrophy. The ability of the podocyte to grow being limited, a mismatch develops between the GBM area and the GBM area covered by foot processes, leading to podocyte injury, detachment of viable podocytes, adherence of capillaries to parietal epithelium, synechia formation and segmental sclerosis. Mechanical stress is also applied to post-filtration structures, resulting in dilation of glomerular and tubular urinary spaces, increased proximal tubular sodium reabsorption by hypertrophied epithelial cells and activation of mediators leading to tubulointerstitial inflammation, hypoxia and fibrosis Key Messages: GH-related mechanical stress leads to both adaptive and maladaptive glomerular and tubular changes. These flow-related effects play a central role in the pathogenesis of glomerular disease. Attenuation of hyperfiltration is thus an important therapeutic target in diabetes and obesity-induced CKD.

DLVO, hydrophobic, capillary and hydrodynamic forces acting on bacteria at solid-air-water interfaces: Their relative impact on bacteria deposition mechanisms in unsaturated porous media.

Experimental and modeling studies were performed to investigate bacteria deposition behavior in unsaturated porous media. The coupled effect of different forces, acting on bacteria at solid-air-water interfaces and their relative importance on bacteria deposition mechanisms was explored by calculating Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) and non-DLVO interactions such as hydrophobic, capillary and hydrodynamic forces. Negatively charged non-motile bacteria and quartz sands were used in packed column experiments. The breakthrough curves and retention profiles of bacteria were simulated using the modified Mobile-IMmobile (MIM) model, to identify physico-chemical attachment or physical straining mechanisms involved in bacteria retention. These results indicated that both mechanisms might occur in both sand. However, the attachment was found to be a reversible process, because attachment coefficients were similar to those of detachment. DLVO calculations supported these results: the primary minimum did not exist, suggesting no permanent retention of bacteria to solid-water and air-water interfaces. Calculated hydrodynamic and resisting torques predicted that bacteria detachment in the secondary minimum might occur. The capillary potential energy was greater than DLVO, hydrophobic and hydrodynamic potential energies, suggesting that film straining by capillary forces might largely govern bacteria deposition under unsaturated conditions.

Silicon-Based Chemical Motors: An Efficient Pump for Triggering and Guiding Fluid Motion Using Visible Light.

We report a simple yet highly efficient chemical motor that can be controlled with visible light. The motor made from a noble metal and doped silicon acts as a pump, which is driven through a light-activated catalytic reaction process. We show that the actuation is based on electro-osmosis with the electric field generated by chemical reactions at the metal and silicon surfaces, whereas the contribution of diffusio-osmosis to the actuation is negligible. Surprisingly, the pump can be operated using water as fuel. This is possible because of the large ζ-potential of silicon, which makes the electro-osmotic fluid motion sizable even though the electric field generated by the reaction is weak. The electro-hydrodynamic process is greatly amplified with the addition of reactive species, such as hydrogen peroxide, which generates higher electric fields. Another remarkable finding is the tunability of silicon-based pumps. That is, it is possible to control the speed of the fluid with light. We take advantage of this property to manipulate the spatial distribution of colloidal microparticles in the liquid and to pattern colloidal microparticle structures at specific locations on a wafer surface. Silicon-based pumps hold great promise for controlled mass transport in fluids.

Platelets and physics: How platelets "feel" and respond to their mechanical microenvironment.

During clot formation, platelets are subjected to various different signals and cues as they dynamically interact with extracellular matrix proteins such as von Willebrand factor (vWF), fibrin(ogen) and collagen. While the downstream signaling of platelet-ligand interactions is well-characterized, biophysical cues, such as hydrodynamic forces and mechanical stiffness of the underlying substrate, also mediate these interactions and affect the binding kinetics of platelets to these proteins. Recent studies have observed that, similar to nucleated cells, platelets mechanosense their microenvironment and exhibit dynamic physiologic responses to biophysical cues. This review discusses how platelet mechanosensing is affected by the hydrodynamic forces that dictate vWF-platelet interactions and fibrin polymerization and network formation. The similarities and differences in mechanosensing between platelets and nucleated cells and integrin-mediated platelet mechanosensing on both fibrin(ogen) and collagen are then reviewed. Further studies investigating how platelets interact with the mechanical microenvironment will improve our overall understanding of the hemostatic process.

Measurement and modeling on hydrodynamic forces and deformation of an air bubble approaching a solid sphere in liquids.

The interaction between bubbles and solid surfaces is central to a broad range of industrial and biological processes. Various experimental techniques have been developed to measure the interactions of bubbles approaching solids in a liquid. A main challenge is to accurately and reliably control the relative motion over a wide range of hydrodynamic conditions and at the same time to determine the interaction forces, bubble-solid separation and bubble deformation. Existing experimental methods are able to focus only on one of the aspects of this problem, mostly for bubbles and particles with characteristic dimensions either below 100 µm or above 1 cm. As a result, either the interfacial deformations are measured directly with the forces being inferred from a model, or the forces are measured directly with the deformations to be deduced from the theory. The recently developed integrated thin film drainage apparatus (ITFDA) filled the gap of intermediate bubble/particle size ranges that are commonly encountered in mineral and oil recovery applications. Equipped with side-view digital cameras along with a bimorph cantilever as force sensor and speaker diaphragm as the driver for bubble to approach a solid sphere, the ITFDA has the capacity to measure simultaneously and independently the forces and interfacial deformations as a bubble approaches a solid sphere in a liquid. Coupled with the thin liquid film drainage modeling, the ITFDA measurement allows the critical role of surface tension, fluid viscosity and bubble approach speed in determining bubble deformation (profile) and hydrodynamic forces to be elucidated. Here we compare the available methods of studying bubble-solid interactions and demonstrate unique features and advantages of the ITFDA for measuring both forces and bubble deformations in systems of Reynolds numbers as high as 10. The consistency and accuracy of such measurement are tested against the well established Stokes-Reynolds-Young-Laplace model. The potential to use the design principles of the ITFDA for fundamental and developmental research is demonstrated.