Attentional control influence habituation through modulation of connectivity patterns within the prefrontal cortex: Insights from stereo-EEG.

Attentional control, guided by top-down processes, enables selective focus on pertinent information, while habituation, influenced by bottom-up factors and prior experiences, shapes cognitive responses by emphasizing stimulus relevance. These two fundamental processes collaborate to regulate cognitive behavior, with the prefrontal cortex and its subregions playing a pivotal role. Nevertheless, the intricate neural mechanisms underlying the interaction between attentional control and habituation are still a subject of ongoing exploration. To our knowledge, there is a dearth of comprehensive studies on the functional connectivity between subsystems within the prefrontal cortex during attentional control processes in both primates and humans. Utilizing stereo-electroencephalogram (SEEG) recordings during the Stroop task, we observed top-down dominance effects and corresponding connectivity patterns among the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the middle frontal gyrus (MFG), and the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) during heightened attentional control. These findings highlighting the involvement of OFC in habituation through top-down attention. Our study unveils unique connectivity profiles, shedding light on the neural interplay between top-down and bottom-up attentional control processes, shaping goal-directed attention.

The Evolution of the Optimization of Cognitive and Social Functions in the Cerebellum and Thereby the Rise of Homo sapiens Through Cumulative Culture.

The evolution of the prominent role of the cerebellum in the development of composite tools, and cumulative culture, leading to the rise of Homo sapiens is examined. Following Stout and Hecht's (2017) detailed description of stone-tool making, eight key repetitive involvements of the cerebellum are highlighted. These key cerebellar learning involvements include the following: (1) optimization of cognitive-social control, (2) prediction (3) focus of attention, (4) automaticity of smoothness, appropriateness, and speed of movement and cognition, (5) refined movement and social cognition, (6) learns models of extended practice, (7) learns models of Theory of Mind (ToM) of teachers, (8) is predominant in acquisition of novel behavior and cognition that accrues from the blending of cerebellar models sent to conscious working memory in the cerebral cortex. Within this context, the evolution of generalization and blending of cerebellar internal models toward optimization of social-cognitive learning is described. It is concluded that (1) repetition of movement and social cognition involving the optimization of internal models in the cerebellum during stone-tool making was the key selection factor toward social-cognitive and technological advancement, (2) observational learning during stone-tool making was the basis for both technological and social-cognitive evolution and, through an optimizing positive feedback loop between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex, the development of cumulative culture occurred, and (3) the generalization and blending of cerebellar internal models related to the unconscious forward control of the optimization of imagined future states in working memory was the most important brain adaptation leading to intertwined advances in stone-tool technology, cognitive-social processes behind cumulative culture (including the emergence of language and art) and, thereby, with the rise of Homo sapiens.

A new method for tracking the preparatory activation of target templates for visual search with high temporal precision.

Efficiently selecting task-relevant objects during visual search depends on foreknowledge of their defining characteristics, which are represented within attentional templates. These templates bias attentional processing toward template-matching sensory signals and are assumed to become anticipatorily activated prior to search display onset. However, a direct neural signal for such preparatory template activation processes has so far remained elusive. Here, we introduce a new high-definition rapid serial probe presentation paradigm (RSPP-HD), which facilitates high temporal resolution tracking of target template activation processes in real time via monitoring of the N2pc component. In the RSPP-HD procedure, task-irrelevant probe displays are presented in rapid succession throughout the period between task-relevant search displays. The probe and search displays are homologously formed by lateralized "clouds" of colored dots, yielding probes that occur at task-relevant locations without confounding template-guided and salience-driven attentional shifts. Target color probes appearing at times when a corresponding target template is active should attract attention, thereby eliciting an N2pc. In a condition where new probe displays appeared every 50 ms, probe N2pcs were reliably elicited during the final 800 ms prior to search display onset, increasing in amplitude toward the end of this preparation period. Analogous temporal profiles were also observed with longer intervals between probes. These findings show that search template activation processes are transient and that their temporal profile can be reliably monitored at high-sampling frequencies with the RSPP-HD paradigm. This procedure offers a new route to approach various questions regarding the content and temporal dynamics of attentional control processes.

Individual peak alpha frequency does not index individual differences in inhibitory cognitive control.

Previous work has indicated that individual differences in cognitive performance can be predicted by characteristics of resting state oscillations, such as individual peak alpha frequency (IAF). Although IAF has previously been correlated with cognitive functions, such as memory, attention, or mental speed, its link to cognitive conflict processing remains unexplored. The current work investigated the relationship between IAF and inhibitory cognitive control in two well-established conflict tasks, Stroop and Navon task, while also controlling for alpha power, theta power, and the 1/f offset of aperiodic broadband activity. In Bayesian analyses on a large sample of 127 healthy participants, we found substantial evidence against the assumption that IAF predicts individual abilities to spontaneously exert cognitive control. Similarly, our findings yielded substantial evidence against links between cognitive control and resting state power in the alpha and theta bands or between cognitive control and aperiodic 1/f offset. In sum, our results challenge frameworks suggesting that an individual's ability to spontaneously engage attentional control networks may be mirrored in resting state EEG characteristics.

The interplay of dopaminergic genotype and parent-child relationship in relation to intra-individual response time variability in preschoolers: A replication study.

Intra-individual response time variability (IIRTV) during cognitive performance is increasingly recognized as an important indicator of attentional control (AC) and related brain region function. However, what determinants contribute to preschoolers' IIRTV received little attention. The present study explored the interaction of dopaminergic polygenic composite score (DPCS) and the parent-child relationship in relation to preschoolers' IIRTV. In the initial sample, 452 preschoolers (M age = 5.17, SD = 0.92) participated in the study. The modified Flanker task was used to evaluate children's IIRTV and their parents were requested to complete the Parent-Child Relationship Scale to assess the parent-child relationship (closeness/conflict). DNA data were extracted from children's saliva samples, and a DPCS was created by the number of COMT, DAT1, and DRD2 alleles associated with lower dopamine levels. Results showed that DPCS significantly interacted with the parent-child closeness to impact preschoolers' IIRTV. Specifically, preschoolers with higher DPCS exhibited lower IIRTV under higher levels of the parent-child closeness, and greater IIRTV under lower levels of the parent-child closeness compared to those with lower DPCS, which supported the differential susceptibility theory (DST). A direct replication attempt with 280 preschoolers (M age = 4.80, SD = 0.86) was conducted to investigate whether the results were in accordance with our exploratory outcomes. The interactive effect of DPCS and the parent-child closeness on IIRTV was confirmed. Additionally, the significant interactive effect of DPCS and the parent-child conflict on IIRTV was found in the replication study. The findings indicate that preschoolers' IIRTV, as an indicator of AC and related brain region function, is influenced by the interactions of dopaminergic genotypes and the parent-child relationship. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We investigated the Gene × Environment mechanism to underline the intra-individual response time variability as an indicator of attentional control (AC) in Chinese preschoolers. Dopaminergic polygenic composite score (COMT, DAT1, and DRD2) interacted with the parent-child relationship to predict preschoolers' intra-individual reaction time variability. A direct replication attempt has been conducted, and the results were in accordance with our exploratory outcomes, which increased the credibility of the present findings. The findings highlight the importance of considering precursors, including polygenic and environmental factors, which contribute to the development of early cognitive performance such as AC.

General deficits of attentional inhibition in high trait anxiety: ERP evidence.

Behavioral evidence shows that individuals with high trait anxiety tend to be distracted by irrelevant stimulation not only for threat-related stimuli but also for non-emotional neutral stimuli. These findings suggest that there may be a general deficit of attentional control in trait anxiety. However, the neural mechanism underlying the anxiety-related deficit in attentional control, especially inhibition function, is still unclear. Here, we examined the attentional processing of the non-emotional neutral distractor on 66 young adults with different levels of trait anxiety, using the ERP indices of attentional selection (N2pc) and top-down inhibition (Pd) in a search task with geometric stimuli. We found that the distractor-evoked N2pc amplitude did not vary with anxiety levels, but increased anxiety was associated with smaller Pds (i.e. worse inhibition). Besides, delayed attentional selection of targets was associated with higher anxiety levels. These correlations of trait anxiety remained significant even after controlling for state anxiety, and state anxiety did not affect the attentional processing of distractors and targets, suggesting that trait anxiety, not current anxiety, affects attentional function. Our findings clarify the mechanism underlying the general attentional deficits in trait anxiety, e.g. reduced distractor inhibition and delayed target selection.

Attentional blur and blink: Effects of adaptive attentional scaling on visual awareness.

Attentional scaling is a crucial mechanism that enables us to flexibly allocate our attention to larger or smaller regions in the visual field. Although previous studies have demonstrated the critical role of attentional scaling in visual processing, its impact on modulating visual awareness is not yet fully understood. This study investigates the adaptive control of attentional scaling and its influence on visual awareness in an attentional blink paradigm. Participants were required to attend to the first target's location, which was manipulated either session-wise, trial-wise, or such that it could be learned across a block of trials. Discrete, all-or-none, awareness was expected when attention was allocated to a narrow area, while gradual awareness was expected when attention was allocated to a larger area. We used mixture modeling to assess second target awareness across these different attentional scales. The results revealed that participants could adaptively control their attentional scale both across stable sessions, and through (implicit) statistical learning in blocks of successive trials. This produced gradual perceptual awareness when the participants adopted a broad attentional scale, causing an attentional "blur". However, trial-wise cues did not allow for attentional scaling, resulting in more discrete target perception overall, and an attentional "blink". We conclude that the attentional scale is to some extent under adaptive control during the attentional blink/blur, where it can produce qualitatively different modes of perceptual awareness.

An investigation of the mechanisms underlying the link between abstract reasoning and intrusive memories: A trauma analogue study.

Potentially traumatic events elicit intrusive memories to which some individuals are more vulnerable than others. Lower abstract reasoning capacity has been related to more intrusive memories. A more perceptual processing style when encoding the event may mediate this link. Another potential mechanism is lower attentional control, resulting in greater attentional bias toward trauma-related content. We examined both of these possibilities using a trauma-analogue paradigm. One hundred and twenty participants completed abstract reasoning tasks. Then, 90 participants watched a negative video, and 30 participants watched a neutral video. The level of perceptual processing (P1) and attentional bias (RT) towards trauma-related stimuli were measured with a pictorial Stroop task while recording EEG. Intrusive memories were recorded for 5 days. Abstract reasoning was not associated with intrusive memories. However, lower abstract reasoning tended to be associated with more perceptual processing (greater P1 amplitude) following the negative video. More perceptual processing also tended to be related to more intrusive memories for younger participants. A more pronounced attentional bias was related to more intrusive memories, but only for women. Unexpectedly, also for women, better verbal reasoning was linked to a more pronounced attentional bias. Results are compared to existing studies and future implications are discussed.

Trait anxiety predicting the developmental trajectories of depression symptoms in children: The mediating role of attentional control.

Trait anxiety and attentional control are important factors related to depression symptoms. The study investigated how trait anxiety and attentional control predicted the trajectories of depression symptoms during the transition into early adolescence. The mediating effect of attentional control on the relationship of trait anxiety to the trajectories of depression symptoms was also examined. Children of 9 to 10 years were recruited at Time 1. Trait anxiety, attentional control, and depression symptoms were assessed at Time 1. Depression symptoms were measured at three follow-up assessments across 18 months. Latent class growth modeling revealed high (14.4%) and low (85.6%) trajectories of depression symptoms. Higher trait anxiety and lower attentional control predicted a higher likelihood of showing the trajectory of high depressive symptoms. Attentional control mediated the relationship of trait anxiety to the trajectory membership of depression symptoms. The findings had important implications for the association of trait anxiety with the trajectory membership of depression symptoms and highlighted the importance of attentional control in the development of depression symptoms for children with high trait anxiety.

Mediating attentional control between depression and problematic Internet use in female adolescents: the role of attentional focusing and shifting.

PURPOSE: Female adolescents are more prone to depression compared with male adolescents, and depression is often associated with poor attentional control and problematic internet use (PIU). Attentional control includes both focusing and shifting functions. Focusing refers to the ability to direct attention to a task despite distractions. Shifting refers to the ability to flexibly switch attention between different tasks. This study examines the mediating role of attentional focusing and shifting between depression and PIU. METHODS: Female high school and college students (n = 476) in Taiwan participated in a survey administered at three time points over a seven-month period. The single- and two- mediator models examined their joint mediation effects. RESULTS: The results showed that the direct effect of depression on PIU was significant. The indirect effects also showed that attentional focusing was a negative partial mediator in the relationship between depression and PIU, while attentional shifting was not one. CONCLUSION: Informed by attentional theory and digital emotion regulation, addressing depression to mitigate its negative impact on attentional control and negative emotions is crucial. The potential impact, whether harmful or beneficial, of adolescents carefully selecting their online activities to reduce the risk of PIU remains contentious. Given the focus on Taiwanese adolescent girls during the COVID-19 pandemic, further research is needed to extend the applicability of the theory to other periods without being affected by COVID-19.

Do the relations of vocabulary and attentional control with word reading and spelling change as a function of development and spelling scoring method?

The current study examined the potentially changing relations of vocabulary knowledge and attentional control with word reading and spelling from Grade 2 to Grade 4. Spelling was scored using a conventional correctness score and an alternative nonbinary scoring method that reflects the degree of correctness (i.e., text distance). A total of 165 Grade 2 English-speaking children in the United States were longitudinally followed from Grade 2 to Grade 4 with annual assessments on word reading, spelling, vocabulary, and attentional control. Results from multiple linear regression models in each grade revealed that spelling was significantly related with vocabulary in Grades 3 and 4 and to attentional control in Grades 2 and 3. A reverse pattern emerged for word reading, where word reading was significantly related with vocabulary only in Grade 2 and to attentional control only in Grade 4. The results were similar for either spelling scoring method. Our findings underscore the dynamic relations of vocabulary and attentional control with word reading and spelling for children in Grades 2 to 4. Nonbinary scoring methods for spelling such as text distance might not provide additional insights compared with conventional correctness scores for the relations of vocabulary and attentional control with spelling.

High task demand in dual-target paradigm redirects experimentally increased anxiety to uphold goal-directed attention.

Previous research has shown that state anxiety facilitates stimulus-driven attentional capture and impairs goal-directed attentional control by increasing sensitivity to salient distractors or threat cues or narrowing spatial attention. However, recent findings in this area have been mixed, and less is known about how state-dependent anxiety may affect attentional performance. Here, we employed a novel dual-target search paradigm to investigate this relationship. This paradigm allowed us to investigate attentional control and how focus narrows under different anxiety states. Participants watched a short movie-either anxiety-inducing or neutral-before engaging in the dual-target visual search task. We found that they performed faster and more accurately in trials without the salient distractor compared to those with distractors, and they performed better in tasks presented on the center than the periphery. However, despite a significant increase in self-reported anxiety in the anxiety-inducing session, participants' performance in terms of speed and accuracy remain comparable across both anxious and neutral sessions. This resilience is likely due to compensatory mechanisms that offset anxiety, a result of the high demands and working memory load inherent in the dual-target task.

Effects of task type on spontaneous alternations of attentional states.

Mind wandering is a common occurrence that can have serious consequences, but estimating when mind wandering occurs is a challenging research question. Previous research has shown that during meditation, people may spontaneously alternate between task-oriented and mind-wandering states without awareness (Zukosky & Wang, 2021, Cognition, 212, Article 104689). However, under what conditions such alternations occur is not clear. The present study examined the effects of task type on spontaneous alternations between task focus and mind wandering. In addition to a meditation task, participants performed either a scene-categorization-based CPT or a visual detection task while attentional orientation was assessed via self-monitoring and intermittent probes. The three tasks differ in the extent of their reliance on continuous monitoring (less required in the detection than meditation and CPT tasks) and attentional orientation (oriented internally in meditation task and externally in CPT and detection tasks). To overcome prior methodological challenges, we applied a technique designed to detect spontaneous alternations between focused and mind-wandering states without awareness, based on how the proportion of "focused" responses/ratings to intermittent probes changes during a focus-to-mind-wandering interval (i.e., the period from one self-report of mind wandering to the subsequent self-report). Our results showed that the proportion of "focused" responses to intermittent probes remained constant with increasing interprobe interval during meditation (consistent with previous work), but declined significantly in the CPT and detection tasks. These findings support the hypothesis that spontaneous alternations of attentional states without self-awareness occur during tasks emphasizing internally but not externally oriented attention.

Aggressive behaviors predict greater intraindividual reaction time variability in children: Evidence from cross-lagged panel models.

Deficits in attentional control or inhibitory control are distinct features of childhood aggressive behaviors. Lower attentional control or inhibitory control is considered to predict more aggressive behaviors, while few studies have documented the possible predictive effects of aggressive behaviors on attentional control or inhibitory control. The present study examined the bidirectional relations between aggressive behaviors and both inhibitory control and attentional control in 169 Chinese primary school children (75 girls, Mage = 7.15, SDage = 0.33), annually for 3 years starting at age 7. The No-go accuracy on a Go/No-go task was used as the index of inhibitory control, and the intraindividual reaction time variability (IIRTV) of correct Go trials indicated attentional control. The aggressive behaviors subscale of the child behavior checklist-Chinese version was used to assess the children's aggressive behaviors. The results demonstrated a significant and stable predictive effect of previous aggressive behaviors on subsequent attentional control, with more aggressive behaviors predicting greater IIRTV at both the between-child and within-child levels. No significant effects of inhibitory control or attentional control on aggressive behaviors or sex-specific patterns were found. The findings suggest the negative impact of childhood aggressive behaviors on attentional control and underscore the importance of early prevention and intervention for childhood aggressive behaviors.

Aversive conditioning, anxiety, and the strategic control of attention.

What we pay attention to is influenced by both reward learning and aversive conditioning. Although early attention tends to be biased toward aversively conditioned stimuli, sustained ignoring of such stimuli is also possible. How aversive conditioning influences how a person chooses to search, or the strategic control of attention, has not been explored. In the present study, participants learned an association between a colour and an aversive outcome during a training phase, and in a subsequent test phase searched for one of two targets presented on each trial; one target was rendered in the aversively conditioned colour (CS+) and the other in a neutral colour (CS-). Given the distribution of colour stimuli in the search array, it was more optimal to search for and report a target in one of the two colours on some trials. Our results demonstrate that participants were biased away from the CS+ target, which resulted in non-optimal search on some trials. Surprisingly, rather than accentuate this bias, greater state anxiety was associated with a stronger tendency to find and report the CS+ target. Our findings have implications for our understanding of the learning-dependent control of attention and abnormal attentional biases observed in high-anxious individuals.

Attentional Bias Toward Cigarette-Related Cues in Male Smokers is Modulated by Cognitive Control Mechanisms.

Background: Many studies have found that smokers' attentional bias toward cigarette-related cues and cognitive control impairment significantly impacts their cigarette use. However, there is limited research on how the interaction between attentional bias and cognitive control may modulate smokers' cigarette-seeking behavior. Objectives: This study used a cigarette Stroop task to examine whether smokers with different attentional control ability had different levels of attentional bias toward cigarette-related cues. Methods: A total of 130 male smokers completed the Flanker task to measure their attentional control ability. The attentional control scores of all participants were ranked from low to high, with the top 27% placed in the high attentional control group and the bottom 27% in the low attentional control group. Subsequently, both groups completed the cigarette Stroop task to measure their attentional bias toward cigarette-related cues. Results: Smokers with low attentional control responded more slowly to cigarette-related cues than to neutral cues, while smokers with high attentional control showed no significant difference in their response time to either condition. Conclusions/Importance: Attentional control ability can regulate smokers' attentional bias toward cigarette-related cues. Smokers with low attentional control ability are more likely to have attentional bias toward cigarette-related cues, offering insights for targeted prevention of cigarette addiction.

The Role of Attentional Control in Mindfulness Intervention for Emotional Distress: A Randomized Controlled Trial With Longitudinal Mediation Analyses.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to investigate whether attentional control serves as a mediator for mindfulness-based interventions for emotional distress, utilizing a randomized waitlist (WL)-controlled design. METHODS: A total of 498 participants with high emotional distress was recruited online and randomly assigned to a 49-day online Mindfulness Intervention for Emotional Distress (MIED) group (N = 249) or a WL control group (N = 249). Levels of attentional control, anxiety and depression were assessed at baseline (T0), Week 3 (T3), Week 5 (T5) and Week 7 (postintervention, T7). RESULTS: Linear mixed models revealed significant Group-by-Time interaction effects for attentional control (p < 0.001), anxiety (p < 0.001) and depression (p < 0.05). Latent growth curve analyses demonstrated a significant increase in attentional control and a decrease in anxiety and depression levels during the MIED programme. These changes becoming evident starting Week 3. Longitudinal mediation analyses revealed that the slope of attentional control significantly mediated the effects of the MIED programme on the slope of anxiety and depression levels. Further, attentional control level at Week 3 significantly mediates the effect of MIED programme on anxiety and depression levels at Weeks 5 and 7. Similarly, attentional control level at Week 5 significantly mediates the MIED programme's effects on anxiety and depression levels at Week 7. CONCLUSIONS: The present trial provides evidence suggesting that mindfulness interventions may alleviate emotional distress through the enhancement of attentional control. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Chinese Clinical Trial Registry number: ChiCTR2200064140.

Alpha-tACS alters attentional control but not cognitive functions as video games do: A psychophysical investigation based on the theory of visual attention.

Video game players' faster speed of information processing has been shown to coincide with altered posterior alpha power modulation, that is, brain oscillatory activity around 10 Hz. Thus, it was proposed that improved cognitive processing in video game players may be related to differential alpha activity. However, a causal relationship thereof has not yet been established. We addressed this by conducting a non-invasive brain stimulation study to demonstrate that modulating alpha power using transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) may impact on speed of information processing. Furthermore, we aimed to show that this effect correlated with altered attentional control, for example, visuospatial attention and/or top-down control processing, given that this has been suggested to contribute to video gaming effects. Therefore, we recruited 19 non-video game players to undergo one of five brain stimulation conditions while performing a visual short-term memory task at five different days, respectively. Thus, we applied tACS either at 10 Hz (alpha frequency) or at 16.18 Hz (control frequency) either over their left or right posterior parietal cortex (PPC) or a sham stimulation. Individuals' speed of information processing, visuospatial attention and top-down control processing were operationalised using a computational modelling approach based on the theory of visual attention. We found that alpha-tACS applied over individuals' left PPC altered their visuospatial attention orientation but not their speed of information processing. Thus, we were not able to establish a causal relationship between speed of information processing and altered visuospatial attention processing through alpha power modulation using non-invasive brain stimulation.

Math anxiety and the shifting function: An event-related potential study of arithmetic task switching.

Why is math anxiety usually related to less efficient math processing? According to attentional control theory, anxiety leads to reduced attentional control, which often entails a greater investment of resources (e.g., more time or effort) to carry out a cognitive task. The executive functions mainly affected by anxiety are inhibition and shifting. Previous studies suggest that math anxiety may impair the inhibitory function. In the present study, the relationship between math anxiety and shifting efficiency when switching between two-digit additions and subtractions was examined. Twenty highly math-anxious and 20 low math-anxious individuals participated in an event-related potential (ERP) transition-cueing experiment. Math anxiety was expected to delay the shifting process, leading to a larger switch cost in response time and no centroparietal cue-locked switch-specific positivity registered in the electroencephalogram during the cue-target interval. Highly math-anxious individuals showed a larger switch cost than their low math-anxious peers. Asymmetrical switch effects between operations in response time were found in both groups, which might be due to larger sequential difficulty effects after subtractions than after additions. The cue-locked switch-specific positivity was present only in the low math-anxious group. The present results suggest that highly math-anxious individuals take longer to shift task sets. Additionally, the highly math-anxious group showed a more positive frontal P2 after the cue that announced a switch to subtraction, probably indicating stronger attentional capture by this cue, because the most threatening condition is anticipated. Taken together, these data suggest that math anxiety also impairs attentional control when switching between arithmetic tasks.

The effect of acute exercise on attentional control and theta power in young adults.

Exercise has a profound impact on one's health, and it is becoming increasingly accepted that exercise also benefits cognitive functioning. Yet, the neural mechanism for which cognitive enhancement occurs is less understood. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to experimentally test whether an acute exercise activity was able to increase theta power and behavioral performance during an executive functioning attentional control task. Participants were randomly assigned to either a stationary-bike exercise or a resting control condition. Thereafter, they completed the Eriksen flanker task, and most participants completed this while EEG data were recorded. From the flanker task data, we demonstrated an interaction effect from both accuracy and reaction time measurements. Importantly, the exercise group was more accurate than the control group in incongruent trials. From the EEG data, theta power was overall higher in the exercise group, especially during the congruent trials, compared to controls. Our results add to the limited but growing body of research that suggests acute exercise produces a general increase in theta power, which in turn may play a role in enhancing cognitive performance. These results, combined with previous research, could have widespread implications in multiple settings such as in the investigation of a biomarker of physical fitness, neurorehabilitation, and in education.