Air Pollution in Kazakhstan and Its Health Risk Assessment.

Background: Air pollution in Kazakhstan is caused by many factors and poses serious threats to public health. Ambient air in the cities of Kazakhstan is polluted due to mining and processing of mineral resources, oil and gas production, gasoline and diesel fuel motor vehicles, industrial enterprises. Objective: The study aim is to assess the air pollution degree in most significant settlements of Kazakhstan and define risk levels for the population health. Ambient air monitoring was conducted in 26 cities. Air pollution severity was assessed by the analysis results and processing of air samples taken at the stationary observation posts. Health risk assessment due to chemical factors was calculated according to the approved risk assessment methodology. Findings: There is high risk of acute adverse effects risk from suspended particles, oxides and dioxides of nitrogen and sulfur in almost all of the studied cities. The most unfavorable situation is in Ust-Kamenogorsk. Also, there is the adverse chronic effects risk caused by suspended particles exposure in majority of the studied cities. Extremely high chronic effects risk as a result of heavy metals exposure was detected in Ust-Kamenogorsk, Shymkent, Almaty, Taraz and Balkhash. Unacceptable carcinogenic risk levels have been determined for professional groups and the whole population with respect to cadmium in Shymkent, Almaty, Balkhash; arsenic in Shymkent, Almaty, Balkhash; lead in Taraz; chromium - in Shymkent, Aktobe, Almaty and Balkhash. Thus, the values of the hazard quotients and indices for acute and chronic exposure in most of the studied cities of Kazakhstan exceed the permissible level equal to 1.0. Conclusion: Due to the unacceptable risk levels in the cities it is strongly recommended to conduct a detailed study of the health status of the population depending on the air pollution.

Potential human health effects of acid rain: report of a workshop.

This report summarizes the potential impact of the acid precipitation phenomenon on human health. There are two major components to this phenomenon: the predepositional phase, during which there is direct human exposure to acidic substances from ambient air, and the post-depositional phase, in which the deposition of acid materials on water and soil results in the mobilization, transport, and even chemical transformation of toxic metals. Acidification increases bioconversion of mercury to methylmercury, which accumulates in fish, increasing the risk to toxicity in people who eat fish. Increase in water and soil content of lead and cadmium increases human exposure to these metals which become additive to other sources presently under regulatory control. The potential adverse health effects of increased human exposure to aluminum is not known at the present time.

Environmental effects of increased coal utilization: ecological effects of gaseous emissions from coal combustion.

This report is limited to an evaluation of the ecological and environmental effects of gaseous emissions and aerosols of various types which result from coal combustion. It deals with NOx, SOx, fine particulate, photochemical oxidant and acid precipitation as these pollutants affect natural and managed resources and ecosystems. Also, synergistic effects involving two or more pollutants are evaluated as well as ecosystem level effects of gaseous pollutants. There is a brief summary of the effects on materials and atmospheric visibility of increased coal combustion. The economic implications of ecological effects are identified to the extent they can be determined within acceptable limits. Aquatic and terrestrial effects are distinguished where the pollutants in question are clearly problems in both media. At present, acid precipitation is most abundant in the north central and northeastern states. Total SOx and NOx emissions are projected to remain high in these regions while increasing relatively more in the western than in the eastern regions of the country. A variety of ecological processes are affected and altered by air pollution. Such processes include community succession and retrogression, nutrient biogeochemical cycling, photosynthetic activity, primary and secondary productivity, species diversity and community stability. Estimates of the non health-related cost of air pollutants range from several hundred million dollars to $1.7 billion dollars per year. In general, these estimates include only those relatively easily measured considerations such as the known losses to cultivate crops from acute air pollution episodes or the cost of frequent repainting required as a result of air pollution. No substantial nationwide estimates of losses to forest productivity, natural ecosystem productivity which is tapped by domestic grazing animals and wildlife, and other significant dollar losses are available.

Health effects of the gas-aerosol complex. Report to Special Committee on Health and Ecological Effects of Increased Coal Utilization.

Combustion products derived from the burning of coal are definitely capable of producing adverse human health effects. No single component of the combustion product mixture is solely responsible. Rather, effects are due to a group of compounds, both gases and aerosols, in the effluents of stationary source combustion processes. Although incompletely defined, the individual components of the gas-aerosol complex appear to be capable of interacting both in terms of atmospheric chemistry and health effects. The three primary air quality standards pertinent to regulating coal combustion all represent to some extent indirect, although reasonable, measures of this gas-aerosol complex. As a group, these standards appear to be adequate to protect human health. Conventional toxicological considerations suggest that the adverse health effects of any necessary increase in coal combustion effluents would be greatest per unit of coal in those areas which are most heavily populated and have the highest preexisting levels of the gas-aerosol complex. In order to decrease the degree of uncertainty for future decisions of this type, it is important that prospective epidemiological and air monitoring studies be initiated in conjunction with any large scale introduction of coal use.

Assessment of the health effects of atmospheric sulfur oxides and particulate matter: evidence from observational studies.

Steadily rising energy costs have increased the need for reliable information on the health effects of atmospheric sulfur oxides and particulate matter. Because ethical and practical considerations limit studies of this question under controlled conditions, observational studies provide an important part of the relevant information. This paper examines the currently available epidemiologic evidence from population studies of the health effects of these pollutants. Nonexperimental studies also have important limitations, including the inability to measure accurately the exposure burden of free living individuals, and the potential for serious confounding by other factors affecting health. We begin with a discussion of some of these methodologic issues. The evidence is then reviewed, first in association with fluctuations in 24 hr mean concentration of sulfur oxides and particulate matter, and then in association with differences in mean annual concentration. In the last section, this evidence is summarized and used to approximate the exposure-response relationship linking pollutant concentrations with mortality and morbidity levels.

Recent advances in investigations of toxicity of automotive exhaust.

The influence of auto exhaust on man's health is difficult to gauge considering the intricacy of human environmental urban stresses and particularly of other air polluting (industrial, domestic) emissions. Epidemiological surveys made in road tunnel employees and in traffic officers have not demonstrated specific effects and have often been complicated by cigarette smoking as a factor. Long-term animal experiments run mostly on small rodents give evidence of little effect of the pathological actions of dilutions such as those encountered in high polluted cities. However the acute toxicity of gasoline exhaust emission is well known and mostly due to carbon monoxide. Considering the different types of cycles and operating conditions of vehicles (gasoline and diesel), auto exhaust gases constitute no more a chemical entity than they show, a definite toxicity. A great number of substances that they contain (nitrogen oxides, aldehydes, antiknock additives, heavy metals, possible catalysts are highly toxic as shown by in vivo and in vitro (mutagenic) tests. Interactions of the components are for the moment ignored or poorly understood. Besides, the evolution of the physicochemical properties and natures of the auto exhaust emission in the gaseous biotope of man under determined conditions of ultraviolet irradiation, temperature, and hygrometry provoke the formation of secondary products such as oxidants and ozone. Several experiments show clearly that irradiation increases the toxicity of auto exhaust significantly. For these reasons, geographical, meteorological, and chronological (circadian and seasonal) factors should be taken into consideration, especially with regard to emission standards.

Effects of airborne pollutants on mucociliary clearance.

The mucociliary clearance system is a first line of defense against inhaled agents, and so its compromise can adversely affect health. The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of data on the effect of in vivo air pollutant exposures on the clearance of test particles from airways. Data from both animals and humans are compared whenever possible, so that estimates of human health effects may be made. Mechanisms of action are also discussed, presenting the view that for low level exposures, changes in secretions are probably responsible for most observed changes in clearance. The pollutants pertinent to this review are those that are common in the environment and most likely to have impacts on large numbers of people: sulfur oxides, sulfuric acid mist, O3, NO2, particulates, diesel exhaust, and cigarette smoke.

Thionyl-chloride-induced lung injury and bronchiolitis obliterans.

Thionyl-chloride (TCl) is used in the manufacture of lithium batteries, producing SO2 and HCl fumes on contact with water. We report two cases of accidental TCl exposure resulting in lung injury that may vary from a relatively mild and reversible interstitial lung disease to a severe form of bronchiolitis obliterans causing, after a latent period, an acute/chronic respiratory failure as well as other complications (spontaneous pneumothorax and bronchopleural fistula), previously unreported in TCl fume inhalation.

Emissions of sulfur trioxide from coal-fired power plants.

Emissions of sulfur trioxide (SO3) are a key component of plume opacity and acid deposition. Consequently, these emissions need to be low enough to not cause opacity violations and acid deposition. Generally, a small fraction of sulfur (S) in coal is converted to SO3 in coal-fired combustion devices such as electric utility boilers. The emissions of SO3 from such a boiler depend on coal S content, combustion conditions, flue gas characteristics, and air pollution devices being used. It is well known that the catalyst used in the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology for nitrogen oxides control oxidizes a small fraction of sulfur dioxide in the flue gas to SO3. The extent of this oxidation depends on the catalyst formulation and SCR operating conditions. Gas-phase SO3 and sulfuric acid, on being quenched in plant equipment (e.g., air preheater and wet scrubber), result in fine acidic mist, which can cause increased plume opacity and undesirable emissions. Recently, such effects have been observed at plants firing high-S coal and equipped with SCR systems and wet scrubbers. This paper investigates the factors that affect acidic mist production in coal-fired electric utility boilers and discusses approaches for mitigating emission of this mist.

Association of ambient air quality with children's lung function in urban and rural Iran.

During the summer of 1994, a cross-sectional epidemiological study, in which the pulmonary function of children in Tehran was compared with pulmonary function in children in a rural town in Iran, was conducted. Four hundred children aged 5-11 y were studied. Daytime ambient nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and particulate matter were measured with portable devices, which were placed in the children's neighborhoods on the days of study. Levels of these ambient substances were markedly higher in urban Tehran than in rural areas. Children's parents were questioned about home environmental exposures (including heating source and environmental tobacco smoke) and the children's respiratory symptoms. Pulmonary function was assessed, both by spirometry and peak expiratory flow meter. Forced expiratory volume in 1 s and forced vital capacity-as a percentage of predicted for age, sex and height-were significantly lower in urban children than in rural children. Both measurements evidenced significant reverse correlations with levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter. Differences in spirometric lung function were not explained by nutritional status, as assessed by height and weight for age, or by home environmental exposures. Reported airway symptoms (i.e., cough, phlegm, and wheeze) were higher among rural children, whereas reported physician diagnosis of bronchitis and asthma were higher among urban children. The association between higher pollutant concentrations and reduced pulmonary function in this urban-rural comparison suggests that there is an effect of urban air pollution on short-term lung function and/or lung growth and development during the preadolescent years.

Health effects of air pollution measured by outpatient visits.

An association between air pollution and various diseases has been demonstrated over the last three decades by examining vital statistics, epidemiologic surveys, and hospital data. This study examines the association between air pollutants and diagnoses made at outpatient visits to a family practice center during an acute episode of air pollution. A strong positive correlation was found between average weekly pollutant levels and the percentage of diagnoses of respiratory tract and cardiac illnesses. Not only do these findings add to the growing evidence of untoward health effects of air pollution; they also suggest a simple method of monitoring such effects in an ambulatory setting.

[Changes in the trace element composition of the hard dental tissues, dental calculus, saliva and gingival biopsies in workers under the influence of unfavorable factors in the manufacture of Cu, Zn and Pb]. / Izmenenie mikroélementnogo sostava tverdykh tkanei zubov, zubnogo kamnia, sliuny i bioptatov desny u rabochikh pod vliianiem neblagopriiatnykh faktorov proizvodstva Cu, Zn i Pb.

Analysis of the trace element composition of biologic samples obtained from workers engaged in the manufacture of Cu, Zn, and Pb articles helps understand the processes of the formation and development of dental diseases. Accumulation of mobile elements in dental deposits, teeth, saliva, and gingival biopsy specimens evidence oral cavity involvement.

Toxicology of the sulfur oxides.

Continuing interest by OSHA-NIOSH and by EPA regarding the adequacy of current sulfur oxides standards has prompted a reappraisal of the available human and animal data. Results of animals studies were not considered to be useful in establishing the original air quality standards in 1970, even though there was good reason to consider them as a prime source of information. Considering the multitude of species tested, using every conceivable method of administration and range of doses, a fairly consistent pattern of effect has emerged. Further, the majority of the human clinical data and even the industrial data parallel and support the results found in the animal studies. However, neither the animal studies, the clinical investigations nor the industrial experiences agree with the recently reported community epidemiological studies that are currently receiving attention. It may well be that the toxicological data are correct in that there are no important long-term effects from exposure to the sulfur oxides. Certainly the laboratory studies, animal or human, do not support more stringent standards for either the occupational or the community environment.

Lithium battery hazard: old-fashioned planning implications of new technology.

Lithium battery technology has important military applications and will increasingly enter the civilian marketplace. In order to prevent explosive fragmentation under some circumstances of malfunction or misuse, lithium batteries are designed to vent externally in the event of malfunction. Depending on the chemistry and size of a venting lithium battery, the release of toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide or thionyl chloride may pose risks to exposed individuals, particularly in enclosed spaces. Chemical and thermal burns, laryngeal edema, pulmonary edema, and bronchiolitis obliterans are potential outcomes. A case report is presented which illustrates the hazards. The hazards are not from unpredictable outcomes, but from failure to plan for predictable outcomes.