Cytotoxicity of gamma irradiated aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A.

Toxicity of gamma irradiated mycotoxins aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) was investigated in vitro. AFB1 and OTA stock solutions (50 mM, in methanol) were gamma irradiated (5 and 10 kGy) and non-irradiated and irradiated mycotoxins solutions were tested for cytotoxicity on Pk15, HepG2 and SH-SY5Y cell lines (MTT assay, 1-500 µM concentration range; 24 h exposure). Degradation of mycotoxin molecules was examined by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). AFB1 and OTA radiolytic products were less toxic than the parent mycotoxins to all of the tested cell lines. Gamma irradiation even at 5 kGy had effect on AFB1 and OTA molecules however, this effect was dependent on chemical structure of mycotoxin. Since gamma irradiation at low dose reduced initial level of both mycotoxins, and gamma irradiated mycotoxins had lower toxicity in comparison to non-irradiated mycotoxins, it can be concluded that gamma irradiation could be used as decontamination method.

Degradation kinetics of aflatoxin B1 and B2 in solid medium by using pulsed light irradiation.

BACKGROUND: Pulsed light (PL) is a new potential technology to degrade aflatoxin. The objective of this study was to investigate the degradation characters of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) and B2 (AFB2 ) treated under PL irradiation. A kinetic degradation study of AFB1 and AFB2 in solid medium was performed under PL irradiation at different initial concentrations of AFB1 (229.9, 30.7 and 17.8 µg kg-1 ) and AFB2 (248.2, 32.2 and 19.5 µg kg-1 ) and irradiation intensities (2.86, 1.60 and 0.93 W cm-2 ) of PL. A second-order reaction model was applied to describe degradation of AFB1 and AFB2 . RESULTS: The results showed that the degradation of AFB1 and AFB2 followed the second-order reaction kinetic model well (R2  > 0.97). The degradation rate was proportional to the intensities of PL irradiation and the initial concentrations of aflatoxins. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that the degradation of AFB1 and AFB2 with the use of PL could be accurately described using the second-order reaction kinetic model. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Is Gamma Radiation Suitable to Preserve Phenolic Compounds and to Decontaminate Mycotoxins in Aromatic Plants? A Case-Study with Aloysia citrodora Paláu.

This study aimed to determine the effect of gamma radiation on the preservation of phenolic compounds and on decontamination of dry herbs in terms of ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), using Aloysia citrodora Paláu as a case study. For this purpose, artificially contaminated dry leaves were submitted to gamma radiation at different doses (1, 5, and 10 kGy; at dose rate of 1.7 kGy/h). Phenolic compounds were analysed by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS and mycotoxin levels were determined by HPLC-fluorescence. Eleven phenolic compounds were identified in the samples and despite the apparent degradation of some compounds (namely verbasoside), 1 and 10 kGy doses point to a preservation of the majority of the compounds. The mean mycotoxin reduction varied between 5.3% and 9.6% for OTA and from 4.9% to 5.2% for AFB1. It was not observed a significant effect of the irradiation treatments on mycotoxin levels, and a slight degradation of the phenolic compounds in the irradiated samples was observed.

Preparation of Soybean Dreg-Based Biochar@TiO2 Composites and the Photocatalytic Degradation of Aflatoxin B1 Exposed to Simulated Sunlight Irradiation.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a highly toxic carcinogen severely harmful to humans and animals. This study fabricated SDB-6-K-9@TiO2 composites via the hydrothermal synthesis method to reduce AFB1. The structural characterization results of the photocatalytic composites showed that TiO2 was successfully loaded onto SDB-6-K-9. The different photocatalytic degradation conditions, photocatalyst kinetics, recycling performance, and photocatalytic degradation mechanism were investigated. Photocatalysis with 6 mg of 4%SDB-6-K-9@TiO2 in a 100 µg/mL AFB1 solution presented a reduction of over 95%, exhibiting excellent performance, high stability, and reusability even after five cycles of photocatalytic experiments. Active species trapping experiments confirmed that holes (h+) played the most critical role. After structural analysis and identification of the photocatalytic degradation products, the photodegradation path and photocatalytic oxidation mechanism of 4%SDB-6-K-9@TiO2 were postulated. The results show a new way to improve TiO2's photocatalytic performance, providing a certain theoretical basis for the effective AFB1 reduction.

X-ray Irradiation Reduces Live Aspergillus flavus Viability but Not Aflatoxin B1 in Naturally Contaminated Maize.

Food crops around the world are commonly contaminated with Aspergillus flavus, which can produce the carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The objective of this study is to test an X-ray irradiation sterilization method for studying AFB1 in contaminated maize samples in the laboratory. Maize that had been naturally contaminated with 300 ppb AFB1 by the growth of aflatoxigenic A. flavus was ground and then irradiated at 0.0, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 kGy. A. flavus was quantified by dilution plating on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and modified Rose Bengal media (MDRB) for viability and qPCR for gene presence. AFB1 was quantified by HPLC and ELISA. A. flavus viability, but not gene copies, significantly decreased with increasing doses of radiation (PDA: p < 0.001; MDRB: p < 0.001; qPCR: p = 0.026). AFB1 concentration did not significantly change with increasing doses of radiation (HPLC: p = 0.153; ELISA: p = 0.567). Our results imply that X-ray irradiation is an effective means of reducing viable A. flavus without affecting AFB1 concentrations. Reducing the hazard of fungal spores and halting AFB1 production at the targeted dose are important steps to safely and reproducibly move forward research on the global mycotoxin challenge.

Application of the pulsed light technology to mycotoxin degradation and inactivation.

The persistence of mycotoxins and their metabolites in agricultural products is a major safety concern because of their high resistance to all kinds of decontamination techniques. In this study, we evaluated the effectiveness of the pulsed light technology for the degradation of mycotoxins. We report that eight flashes of pulsed light destroyed of 84.5 ± 1.9, 72.5 ± 1.1, 92.7 ± 0.8 and 98.1 ± 0.2% of zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin in solution. The degradation of the molecules was monitored by HPLC and LC-MS/MS analysis. We estimated the potential toxicity of zearalenone and deoxynivelenol after exposure to a pulsed light treatment using the Caenorhabditis elegans survival tests. The genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 was also investigated using a complete Ames test. The results show that the treatment of zearalenone and deoxynivelenol by single or multiple flashes of pulsed light is associated with a stagnation or marginal decrease of the toxicity of the mycotoxins and that treatment of aflatoxin B1 by pulsed light can completely eliminate the mutagenic potential of this mycotoxin. This work provides the first demonstration of a nonthermal technology allowing mycotoxin destruction and inactivation of their mutagenic activity.

A label-free immunoassay protocol for aflatoxin B1 based on UV-induced fluorescence enhancement.

As one of the most toxic chemical carcinogens, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has attracted extensive attention due to its severe impairment to human health. There exists urgent demand to develop facile and sensitive method for rapid screening of AFB1. Here magnetic beads modified with mouse monoclonal antibody (McAb) were adopted for capture and enrichment of the mycotoxin in sample matrix. Then UV radiation at 365 nm was utilized to induce the enhancement of fluorescent (FL) emission of the captured AFB1 with an addition reaction. The FL signal of the derivative at 435 nm was collected to quantify AFB1. The immunoassay method for AFB1 showed a wide detection range of 1.0-1000 ng mL-1, with a low detection limit of 0.21 ng mL-1 (3σ). It was applied to detect AFB1 in herbal medicines including Astragalus membranaceus and Salvia Miltiorrhiza, with acceptable recovery values of 95.4-107.7%. It shows many merits including facile manipulation, low cost, high sensitivity and ideal selectivity. Due to its simple detection mechanism, the UV-induced FL derivatization-based label-free immunoassay can be furtherly extended to detection of other mycotoxins with similar chemical structures.

Aflatoxin B1: A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food, occupational exposure, and detoxification methods.

Aflatoxins are a class of carcinogenic mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus fungi and are known to contaminate a large portion of the world's food supply. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent of these compounds and has been well-characterized to lead to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in humans and animals. This review focuses on the metabolism of AFB1, including epoxidation and DNA adduction, as it concerns the initiation of cancer and the underlying mechanisms. The link between AFB1 consumption and HCC is also discussed including synergistic interactions with the hepatitis B virus. Toxic effects of AFB1, including growth suppression, malnutrition, and immunomodulation, are also covered. This review also describes recent reports of AFB1 occurrence in global food supplies and exposures in occupational settings. Furthermore, a summary of recent detoxification methods is included to indicate the present state of the field in developing aflatoxin control methods. This information shows that AFB1 occurs frequently in food supplies at high concentrations, particularly in maize. Regarding detoxification methods, chemical control methods were the fastest methods that still retained high detoxification efficacy. The information presented here highlights the need to implement new and/or existing detoxification methods to reduce the global burden of AFB1 toxicity.

Effects of gamma irradiation on aflatoxin B1 levels in soybean and on the properties of soybean and soybean oil.

Fungal infection is inevitable in the cultivation and storage process of soybean. Gamma irradiation is an effective method to control fungal growth and inactivate mycotoxins. The effects of gamma irradiation and fungal damage on the number of fungi, aflatoxin B1 content, proximate composition of soybeans, and quality of soybean oil (acid value, peroxide value, iodine value, fatty acid profile, tocopherols content, and oxidation stability) were investigated in this work. Growth of fungi caused some changes in proximate composition of soybean and qualities of soybean oil. However, the changes depended on the damage extent of soybeans. No significant change was found for the soybeans incubated for 30 days (moderately fungi-damaged). Gamma irradiation could completely eliminate the fungi and greatly reduce the content of aflatoxin B1 in soybeans at 10 kGy. For soybeans incubated for 30 days, there were no significant changes in the quality attributes, tocopherols content and oxidation stability of oil when the gamma irradiation dose was less than 20 kGy. Gamma irradiation is a promising method to improve the safety and economy of moderately fungi-damaged soybean used for feedstuff.

Effect of UV irradiation on aflatoxin reduction: a cytotoxicity evaluation study using human hepatoma cell line.

In this proof-of-concept study, the efficacy of a medium-pressure UV (MPUV) lamp source to reduce the concentrations of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, and aflatoxin G1 (AFB1, AFB2, and AFG1) in pure water is investigated. Irradiation experiments were conducted using a collimated beam system operating between 200 to 360 nm. The optical absorbance of the solution and the irradiance of the lamp are considered in calculating the average fluence rate. Based on these factors, the UV dose was quantified as a product of average fluence rate and treatment time. Known concentrations of aflatoxins were spiked in water and irradiated at UV doses ranging from 0, 1.22, 2.44, 3.66, and 4.88 J cm-2. The concentration of aflatoxins was determined by HPLC with fluorescence detection. LC-MS/MS product ion scans were used to identify and semi-quantify degraded products of AFB1, AFB2, and AFG1. It was observed that UV irradiation significantly reduced aflatoxins in pure water (p < 0.05). Irradiation doses of 4.88 J cm-2 reduced concentrations 67.22% for AFG1, 29.77% for AFB2, and 98.25% for AFB1 (p < 0.05). Using this technique, an overall reduction of total aflatoxin content of ≈95% (p < 0.05) was achieved. We hypothesize that the formation of ˙OH radicals initiated by UV light may have caused photolysis of AFB1, AFB2, and AFG1 molecules. In cell culture studies, our results demonstrated that the increase of UV dosage decreased the aflatoxin-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells. Therefore, our research finding suggests that UV irradiation can be used as an effective technique for the reduction of aflatoxins.

A Structure Identification and Toxicity Assessment of the Degradation Products of Aflatoxin B1 in Peanut Oil under UV Irradiation.

Aflatoxins, a group of extremely hazardous compounds because of their genotoxicity and carcinogenicity to human and animals, are commonly found in many tropical and subtropical regions. Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is proven to be an effective method to reduce or detoxify aflatoxins. However, the degradation products of aflatoxins under UV irradiation and their safety or toxicity have not been clear in practical production such as edible oil industry. In this study, the degradation products of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in peanut oil were analyzed by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatograph-Thermo Quadrupole Exactive Focus mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (UPLC-TQEF-MS/MS). The high-resolution mass spectra reflected that two main products were formed after the modification of a double bond in the terminal furan ring and the fracture of the lactone ring, while the small molecules especially nitrogen-containing compound may have participated in the photochemical reaction. According to the above results, the possible photodegradation pathway of AFB1 in peanut oil is proposed. Moreover, the human embryo hepatocytes viability assay indicated that the cell toxicity of degradation products after UV irradiation was much lower than that of AFB1, which could be attributed to the breakage of toxicological sites. These findings can provide new information for metabolic pathways and the hazard assessment of AFB1 using UV detoxification.

[Aflatoxins in food: tests of decontamination of peanut cakes by ionizing treatment]. / Aflatoxines dans les aliments: essais de décontamination des tourteaux d'arachide par traitement ionisant.

The efficacy of ionising treatment for decontaminating peanut cakes was tested. The influence of cakes water content and the effect of ionisation dose rate were studied. The results obtained after a reverse phase liquid chromatographic determination of B1, B2, G1 and G2 aflatoxins have revealed an important contamination of the peanut cakes (up to 1000 ppb of total aflatoxin's contents). After ionising treatment at 25 kGy, the aflatoxins degradation in peanut cake's was less important in dried samples (about 5-10% at 0.55 water activity: aw) than in the humid ones (40-60% degradation at 0.95 water activity). At this dose, any indicative difference of the degradation rate of aflatoxins, with regard to the ionising process was observed. The efficacy of ionising treatment for decontaminating peanut cakes could probably be improved, however the economic interest of such process as alternative of the treatment with ammonia is questionable.

Photodegradation kinetics and byproducts identification of the Aflatoxin B1 in aqueous medium by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

A photodegradation study of Aflatoxin B(1) (AFB(1)) in water solution was performed under UV irradiation at different AFB(1) initial concentrations and UV irradiation intensities. The effect of UV intensity on the AFB(1) photodegradation ratio is dominative, when compared with AFB(1) initial concentration. The photodegradation of AFB(1) was proved to follow first-order reaction kinetics (R(2) > or = 0.99). Three photodegradation products, i.e. P(1) (C(17)H(14)O(7)), P(2) (C(16)H(14)O(6)) and P(3) (C(16)H(12)O(7)), were identified on the basis of low mass error and high matching property by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF MS), and the degradation pathway was proposed. This study first reports the appearance of these photodegradation products and the proposed degradation pathway in aqueous media.

Influence of gamma-irradiation and maize lipids on the production of aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus flavus.

The effect of gamma-irradiation and maize lipids on aflatoxin B1 production by Aspergillus flavus artificially inoculated into sterilized maize at reduced water activity (aw 0.84) was investigated. By increasing the irradiation doses the total viable population of A. flavus decreased and the fungus was completely inhibited at 3.0 kGy. The amounts of aflatoxin B1 were enhanced at irradiation dose levels 1.0 and 1.5 kGy in both full-fat maize (FM) and defatted maize (DM) media and no aflatoxin B1 production at 3.0 kGy gamma-irradiation over 45 days of storage was observed. The level in free lipids of FM decreased gradually, whereas free fatty acid values and fungal lipase activity increased markedly by increasing the storage periods. The free fatty acid values decreased by increasing the irradiation dose levels and there was a significant enhancement of fungal lipase activity at doses of 1.0 and 1.50 kGy. The ability of A. flavus to grow at aw 0.84 and produce aflatoxin B1 is related to the lipid composition of maize. The enhancement of aflatoxin B1 at low doses was correlated to the enhancement of fungal lipase activity.

Effect of gamma-irradiation on aflatoxin B1 production by Aspergillus flavus and chemical composition of three crop seeds.

The effect of gamma-irradiation on aflatoxin B1 production by Aspergillus flavus, and the chemical composition of some different crop seeds were investigated. A. flavus infected seeds behaved differently according to their principal constituents. A. flavus caused an increase in protein and decrease in lipids and carbohydrate contents of wheat, soyabean and fababean seeds. Growth of A. flavus and production of aflatoxin B1 was inhibited at a dose level of 5 kGy. A. flavus utilizes carbohydrates of seeds for its growth and aflatoxin production. Crops were arranged, in descending order, according to aflatoxin produced in seeds as wheat > soyabean > fababean. There were no changes in chemical constituents of irradiated seeds, such as protein, lipids, and carbohydrates.