C1q Gene Polymorphism Is Associated with Asymptomatic Bacteriuria in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Background and Objectives: Asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) appears to have a higher prevalence in diabetics and has been associated with various genetic polymorphisms of the innate immune system. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the C1q gene that encodes for the trigger molecule of the classical complement pathway increase the risk of bacterial infections as well as other diseases. In the present study, we sought to investigate the association of C1q rs292001 (G > A) SNP with ASB in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). Materials and Methods: In this case-control study, performed at the University and the Venizeleion General Hospital of Heraklion, Crete, Greece, 75 adult male and female Cretan patients with T2D and ASB and 75 adult male and female Cretan patients with T2D but without ASB were enrolled and genotyped for rs292001 SNP of C1q gene. Genetic analysis was based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RLFPs) methods. Results: Τhe frequency of homozygotes for the G/G genotype of C1q rs292001 was significantly higher in patients with T2D and ASB than in the control group (p-value = 0.0480, OR = 2.952, 95% CI: 1.052−7.542). Conclusions: Τhe present study provides the first evidence of an association between the C1q rs292001 SNP and an increased susceptibility for ASB in an adult Cretan population with T2D, thus suggesting that this SNP can be encountered as a risk factor for the presence of ASB in patients with T2D.

Numerical interpretation of TRS-PCR profiling results for Escherichia coli strains isolated from patients with bacteriuria in Lodz region, Poland.

With the multiplicity of existing methods to track E. coli infections, it still seems necessary to seek new, better and/or complementary ways for epidemiological investigations. Particularly, fast, cheap, effective and reproducible methods providing easily comparable results are needed. Our previous studies showed that the use of TRS-PCR is an effective molecular tool in E. coli epidemiology. In this paper, we have developed a unique classification scheme in which an individual TRS-PCR pattern is assigned a numerical value. This approach allows for rapid interpretation of the results obtained from several similarity dendrograms. Using this approach, based on CAC-PCR, GTG-PCR and CGG-PCR, we obtained 52, 86 and 99 different numerical types for the 124 analyzed uropathogenic E. coli strains, respectively. This allowed for the identification of 121 unique isolates differing in at least one TRS-PCR class. In this approach, we got numerical results, easy to sort and interpret, allowing easier analysis of these strains.

Mouse model for sublethal Leptospira interrogans infection.

Although Leptospira can infect a wide range of mammalian species, most studies have been conducted in golden Syrian hamsters, a species particularly sensitive to acute disease. Chronic disease has been well characterized in the rat, one of the natural reservoir hosts. Studies in another asymptomatic reservoir host, the mouse, have occasionally been done and have limited infection to mice younger than 6 weeks of age. We analyzed the outcome of sublethal infection of C3H/HeJ mice older than age 10 weeks with Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni. Infection led to bloodstream dissemination of Leptospira, which was followed by urinary shedding, body weight loss, hypothermia, and colonization of the kidney by live spirochetes 2 weeks after infection. In addition, Leptospira dissemination triggered inflammation in the kidney but not in the liver or lung, as determined by increased levels of mRNA transcripts for the keratinocyte-derived chemokine, RANTES, macrophage inflammatory protein 2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1ß, inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin-6, and gamma interferon in kidney tissue. The acquired humoral response to Leptospira infection led to the production of IgG mainly of the IgG1 subtype. Flow cytometric analysis of splenocytes from infected mice revealed that cellular expansion was primarily due to an increase in the levels of CD4(+) and double-negative T cells (not CD8(+) cells) and that CD4(+) T cells acquired a CD44(high) CD62L(low) effector phenotype not accompanied by increases in memory T cells. A mouse model for sublethal Leptospira infection allows understanding of the bacterial and host factors that lead to immune evasion, which can result in acute or chronic disease or resistance to infection (protection).

The new world of the urinary microbiota in women.

Emerging evidence challenges the long-held paradigm that the healthy bladder is sterile. These discoveries may provide new opportunities to address important women's health conditions, which include preterm labor and delivery, urinary tract infections, and common forms of urinary incontinence. Traditional tools for urinary bacterial assessment, which includes urinary dipsticks and standard urine cultures, have significant limitations that restrict the information that is available to clinicians. For example, the standard urine culture does not detect slow-growing bacteria that die in the presence of oxygen. Two new, complementary tools, however, can detect these and other organisms, which permits a more complete characterization of bacterial communities within the female bladder. Obstetrician-gynecologists should become familiar with these new approaches (expanded quantitative urine culture and 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing) that can detect previously unrecognized organisms. These advances are making it possible to answer previously intractable scientific and clinical questions. Traditional nomenclature used to describe the bacterial status in the bladder is quite dated and unsuited for the emerging information about the bacterial milieu of the female urinary tract. In the context of the sterile bladder paradigm, clinicians have learned about "uropathogens," "asymptomatic bacteriuria," and "urinary tract infection." Given that the lower urinary tract is not sterile, these terms should be reevaluated. Clinicians can already benefit from the emerging knowledge regarding urinary organisms that have previously gone undetected or unappreciated. For example, in some subpopulations of women with urinary symptoms, existing data suggest that the urinary bacterial community may be associated with women's health conditions of interest. This Clinical Opinion highlights the inadequacies of the current tools for urinary bacterial assessment, describes the new assessment tools, explains the current interpretation of the resulting data, and proposes potential clinical uses and relevance. A new world is opening to our view that will give us the opportunity to better understand urinary bacteria and the bladder in which they live. This new knowledge has significant potential to improve patient care in obstetrics and gynecology.

Integrated next-generation sequencing of 16S rDNA and metaproteomics differentiate the healthy urine microbiome from asymptomatic bacteriuria in neuropathic bladder associated with spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND: Clinical dogma is that healthy urine is sterile and the presence of bacteria with an inflammatory response is indicative of urinary tract infection (UTI). Asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU) represents the state in which bacteria are present but the inflammatory response is negligible. Differentiating ABU from UTI is diagnostically challenging, but critical because overtreatment of ABU can perpetuate antimicrobial resistance while undertreatment of UTI can result in increased morbidity and mortality. In this study, we describe key characteristics of the healthy and ABU urine microbiomes utilizing 16S rRNA gene (16S rDNA) sequencing and metaproteomics, with the future goal of utilizing this information to personalize the treatment of UTI based on key individual characteristics. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of 26 healthy controls and 27 healthy subjects at risk for ABU due to spinal cord injury-related neuropathic bladder (NB) was conducted. Of the 27 subjects with NB, 8 voided normally, 8 utilized intermittent catheterization, and 11 utilized indwelling Foley urethral catheterization for bladder drainage. Urine was obtained by clean catch in voiders, or directly from the catheter in subjects utilizing catheters. Urinalysis, urine culture and 16S rDNA sequencing were performed on all samples, with metaproteomic analysis performed on a subsample. RESULTS: A total of 589454 quality-filtered 16S rDNA sequence reads were processed through a NextGen 16S rDNA analysis pipeline. Urine microbiomes differ by normal bladder function vs. NB, gender, type of bladder catheter utilized, and duration of NB. The top ten bacterial taxa showing the most relative abundance and change among samples were Lactobacillales, Enterobacteriales, Actinomycetales, Bacillales, Clostridiales, Bacteroidales, Burkholderiales, Pseudomonadales, Bifidobacteriales and Coriobacteriales. Metaproteomics confirmed the 16S rDNA results, and functional human protein-pathogen interactions were noted in subjects where host defenses were initiated. CONCLUSIONS: Counter to clinical belief, healthy urine is not sterile. The healthy urine microbiome is characterized by a preponderance of Lactobacillales in women and Corynebacterium in men. The presence and duration of NB and method of urinary catheterization alter the healthy urine microbiome. An integrated approach of 16S rDNA sequencing with metaproteomics improves our understanding of healthy urine and facilitates a more personalized approach to prevention and treatment of infection.

Susceptibility to acute pyelonephritis or asymptomatic bacteriuria: host-pathogen interaction in urinary tract infections.

Our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of urinary tract infection (UTI) pathogenesis has advanced greatly in recent years. In this review, we provide a general background of UTI pathogenesis, followed by an update on the mechanisms of UTI susceptibility, with a particular focus on genetic variation affecting innate immunity. The innate immune response of the host is critically important in the antibacterial defence mechanisms of the urinary tract, and bacterial clearance normally proceeds without sequelae. However, slight dysfunctions in these mechanisms may result in acute disease and tissue destruction. The symptoms of acute pyelonephritis are caused by the innate immune response, and inflammation in the urinary tract decreases renal tubular function and may give rise to renal scarring, especially in paediatric patients. In contrast, in children with asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU), bacteria persist without causing symptoms or pathology. Pathogenic agents trigger a response determined by their virulence factors, mediating adherence to the urinary tract mucosa, signalling through Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and activating the defence mechanisms. In ABU strains, such virulence factors are mostly not expressed. However, the influence of the host on UTI severity cannot be overestimated, and rapid progress is being made in clarifying host susceptibility mechanisms. For example, genetic alterations that reduce TLR4 function are associated with ABU, while polymorphisms reducing IRF3 or CXCR1 expression are associated with acute pyelonephritis and an increased risk for renal scarring. It should be plausible to "individualize" diagnosis and therapy by combining information on bacterial virulence and the host response.

Genetic Background and Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of K. pneumoniae NDM-1 Strains Isolated from UTI, ABU, and the GI Tract, from One Hospital in Poland, in Relation to Strains Nationally and Worldwide.

In recent years, there has been an observed increase in infections caused by carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumonia (Kp) strains. The aim of this study was the phenotypic and genotypic analysis of eight K. pneumoniae NDM (Kp NDM) isolates, recovered in Poland during the years 2016 and 2018 from seven patients with urinary tract infections (UTIs), asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU), or colonization of the gut. PCR melting profile genotyping indicated a close relationship between the strains derived from 2018, which were not related to the strain isolated in 2016. WGS results were analyzed in relation to international Kp isolates. Clonal and phylogenetic analyses were performed based on multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the core genome. The metallo-ß-lactamase was assigned to the NDM-1 type and the sequence was identified as ST11. Eleven antimicrobial resistance genes were detected, mostly from plasmid contigs. Unprecedented profiles of plasmid replicons were described with the IncFII/pKPX-1 dominant replicon. In terms of the KL24 and O2v1 capsular antigen profiles, these isolates corresponded to Greek strains. Strains isolated from UTI, ABU, and colonization GI tract patients were not carrying environment-specific virulence genes. Based on the assessment of strain relationships at the genome level and their direction of evolution, the international character of the sublines was demonstrated, with a documented epidemic potential in Poland and Greece. In conclusion, some groups of patients, e.g., renal transplant recipients or those with complicated UTIs, who are frequently hospitalized and undergoing antibiotic therapy, should be monitored not only for the risk of UTI, but also for colonization by Kp NDM strains.

Tamm-horsfall protein protects against urinary tract infection by proteus mirabilis.

PURPOSE: Proteus mirabilis is a common cause of urinary tract infection. We determined the role of Tamm-Horsfall protein as a host defense factor against the cystitis and pyelonephritis caused by P. mirabilis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We generated Tamm-Horsfall protein gene knockout mice using homologous recombination. We introduced P. mirabilis transurethrally into the bladder of Tamm-Horsfall protein deficient (THP(-/-)) and genetically similar WT (THP(+/+)) mice. We cultured urine to quantitate the degree of bacteriuria. We examined bladders and kidneys grossly and histomorphometrically to determine the intensity of inflammation. RESULTS: THP(-/-) mice had more severe bacteriuria and cystitis than THP(+/+) mice. THP(-/-) mice had more pyelonephritic abscesses than THP(+/+) mice. The severity of histological pyelonephritis on semiquantitative histomorphometric analysis appeared to be greater in THP(-/-) mice. The difference between the 2 groups approached but did not attain statistical significance (p = 0.053). CONCLUSION: Tamm-Horsfall protein acts as a host defense factor against P. mirabilis induced urinary tract infection.

Asymptomatic Bacteriuria is Harmless and Even Protective: Don't Treat if You Don't Have a Very Specific Reason.

Symptom-free bacterial colonization of the lower urinary tract in an otherwise healthy individual was long misunderstood. Our current understanding is based on solid research proving that asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU) is harmless and even protective against symptomatic urinary tract infection episodes. Thus, ABU should not be treated in patients with the exception of before endosurgery and, until we have accumulated more knowledge, in pregnant women.

Genetic control of the variable innate immune response to asymptomatic bacteriuria.

The severity of urinary tract infection (UTI) reflects the quality and magnitude of the host response. While strong local and systemic innate immune activation occurs in patients with acute pyelonephritis, the response to asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU) is low. The immune response repertoire in ABU has not been characterized, due to the inherent problem to distinguish bacterial differences from host-determined variation. In this study, we investigated the host response to ABU and genetic variants affecting innate immune signaling and UTI susceptibility. Patients were subjected to therapeutic urinary tract inoculation with E. coli 83972 to ensure that they were exposed to the same E. coli strain. The innate immune response repertoire was characterized in urine samples, collected from each patient before and after inoculation with bacteria or PBS, if during the placebo arm of the study. Long-term E. coli 83972 ABU was established in 23 participants, who were followed for up to twelve months and the innate immune response was quantified in 233 urine samples. Neutrophil numbers increased in all but two patients and in an extended urine cytokine/chemokine analysis (31 proteins), the chemoattractants IL-8 and GRO-α, RANTES, Eotaxin-1 and MCP-1, the T cell chemoattractant and antibacterial peptide IP-10, inflammatory regulators IL-1-α and sIL-1RA and the T lymphocyte/dendritic cell product sIL-2Rα were detected and variably increased, compared to sterile samples. IL-6, which is associated with symptomatic UTI, remained low and numerous specific immune mediators were not detected. The patients were also genotyped for UTI-associated IRF3 and TLR4 promoter polymorphisms. Patients with ABU associated TLR4 polymorphisms had low neutrophil numbers, IL-6, IP-10, MCP-1 and sIL-2Rα concentrations. Patients with the ABU-associated IRF3 genotype had lower neutrophils, IL-6 and MCP-1 responses than the remaining group. The results suggest that the host-specific, low immune response to ABU mainly includes innate immune mediators and that host genetics directly influence the magnitude of this response.

Toll-like receptor 4 promoter polymorphisms: common TLR4 variants may protect against severe urinary tract infection.

BACKGROUND: Polymorphisms affecting Toll-like receptor (TLR) structure appear to be rare, as would be expected due to their essential coordinator role in innate immunity. Here, we assess variation in TLR4 expression, rather than structure, as a mechanism to diversify innate immune responses. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We sequenced the TLR4 promoter (4,3 kb) in Swedish blood donors. Since TLR4 plays a vital role in susceptibility to urinary tract infection (UTI), promoter sequences were obtained from children with mild or severe disease. We performed a case-control study of pediatric patients with asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU) or those prone to recurrent acute pyelonephritis (APN). Promoter activity of the single SNPs or multiple allelic changes corresponding to the genotype patterns (GPs) was tested. We then conducted a replication study in an independent cohort of adult patients with a history of childhood APN. Last, in vivo effects of the different GPs were examined after therapeutic intravesical inoculation of 19 patients with Escherichia coli 83972. We identified in total eight TLR4 promoter sequence variants in the Swedish control population, forming 19 haplotypes and 29 genotype patterns, some with effects on promoter activity. Compared to symptomatic patients and healthy controls, ABU patients had fewer genotype patterns, and their promoter sequence variants reduced TLR4 expression in response to infection. The ABU associated GPs also reduced innate immune responses in patients who were subjected to therapeutic urinary E. coli tract inoculation. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that genetic variation in the TLR4 promoter may be an essential, largely overlooked mechanism to influence TLR4 expression and UTI susceptibility.

Genetic variation of the human urinary tract innate immune response and asymptomatic bacteriuria in women.

BACKGROUND: Although several studies suggest that genetic factors are associated with human UTI susceptibility, the role of DNA variation in regulating early in vivo urine inflammatory responses has not been fully examined. We examined whether candidate gene polymorphisms were associated with altered urine inflammatory profiles in asymptomatic women with or without bacteriuria. METHODOLOGY: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB) in 1,261 asymptomatic women ages 18-49 years originally enrolled as participants in a population-based case-control study of recurrent UTI and pyelonephritis. We genotyped polymorphisms in CXCR1, CXCR2, TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, and TIRAP in women with and without ASB. We collected urine samples and measured levels of uropathogenic bacteria, neutrophils, and chemokines. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Polymorphism TLR2_G2258A, a variant associated with decreased lipopeptide-induced signaling, was associated with increased ASB risk (odds ratio 3.44, 95%CI; 1.65-7.17). Three CXCR1 polymorphisms were associated with ASB caused by gram-positive organisms. ASB was associated with urinary CXCL-8 levels, but not CXCL-5, CXCL-6, or sICAM-1 (P< or =0.0001). Urinary levels of CXCL-8 and CXCL-6, but not ICAM-1, were associated with higher neutrophil levels (P< or =0.0001). In addition, polymorphism CXCR1_G827C was associated with increased CXCL-8 levels in women with ASB (P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: TLR2 and CXCR1 polymorphisms were associated with ASB and a CXCR1 variant was associated with urine CXCL-8 levels. These results suggest that genetic factors are associated with early in vivo human bladder immune responses prior to the development of symptomatic UTIs.

Reduced toll-like receptor 4 expression in children with asymptomatic bacteriuria.

Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 is essential for the defense against infection with gram-negative pathogens, but reduced TLR4 expression has not been linked to altered disease susceptibility in humans. In mice, Tlr4 controls the mucosal response to Escherichia coli urinary tract infections. Inactivation of mouse Tlr4 causes an asymptomatic carrier state resembling asymptomatic bacteriuria (ABU). The present study compared neutrophil TLR4 expression levels between children with ABU (n=17) and age-matched control subjects (n=24), and significantly lower levels were detected in the patients with ABU. We also found elevated levels of the TLR4 adaptor protein TRIF and reduced levels of the TLR4-inhibitor SIGIRR in the patients with ABU, but MyD88 and TRAM levels were not significantly altered. Altered TLR4 and adaptor protein expression might impair TLR4 signaling and explain the weak mucosal response to urinary tract infection in patients who develop ABU rather than symptomatic disease.

Tamm-Horsfall protein knockout mice are more prone to urinary tract infection: rapid communication.

BACKGROUND: Human colon contains many bacteria that commonly colonize the perineum and frequently enter the urinary tract. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli are the most common cause of urinary tract infection. Type 1 fimbriated E. coli have been associated with cystitis, and P fimbriated E. coli with pyelonephritis. Factors involved in clearing bacteria from the urinary tract are poorly understood. Tamm-Horsfall protein (THP), the most abundant protein in mammalian urine, has been postulated to play a role in defense against urinary tract infection but definitive proof for this idea has been lacking. METHODS: In this study, we generated THP gene knockout mice by the technique of homologous recombination, and examined if the THP-deficient (THP-/-) mice were more prone to urinary tract infection. Various strains of E. coli expressing type 1 or P fimbriae were introduced transurethrally into the bladders of the THP-/- and genetically similar wild-type (THP+/+) mice. Urine, bladder, and kidney tissues were obtained from the mice and cultured for bacterial growth. RESULTS: THP-/- mice inoculated with type 1 fimbriated E. coli had a longer duration of bacteriuria, and more intense colonization of the urinary bladder in comparison with THP+/+ mice. When inoculated with a P fimbriated strain of E. coli, the THP-/- mice showed no difference in kidney bacterial load when compared with the THP+/+ mice. CONCLUSION: These findings support the idea that THP serves as a soluble receptor for type 1 fimbriated E. coli and helps eliminate bacteria from the urinary tract.

Natural history of bacteriuria in schoolgirls. A long-term case-control study.

To define better the natural history of bacteriuria in females, we followed 60 schoolgirls with bacteriuria and 38 matched controls for periods ranging from nine to 18 years. Among the schoolgirls with bacteriuria (greater than or equal to 10(5) organisms per milliliter in two or more consecutive cultures), reflux was repaired in five, nephrectomy was performed in two, and reduced inulin clearance was noted in one subject with atrophic pyelonephritis. Serum creatinine was slightly higher in cases than in controls. Renal scars or caliectasis occurred in 16 cases but in none of the controls. Blood pressure was similar in both groups. Episodes of bacteriuria in cases and controls were, respectively: five or more episodes, 21.7 and 2.6 per cent; and episodes during pregnancy, 63.8 and 26.7 per cent. Seven children of the cases but none of the children of controls showed urinary-tract infections. Bacteriuria among schoolgirls defines a group at great risk of recurrent symptomatic infections and renal scars and at low risk of reduced renal function.

Molecular epidemiology of asymptomatic bacteriuria in the elderly.

OBJECTIVES: to determine the incidence and the dynamics of asymptomatic bacteriuria in ambulatory nursing home residents, and to characterise bacteria according to their phenotype and genotype. DESIGN: an 18 months prospective longitudinal study. SUBJECTS: 42 nursing home residents (31 female, 11 males) without indwelling catheters. METHODS: urine was sampled every 3 months. Antibiograms, biotyping and ribotyping were performed. RESULTS: the cumulative percent of infection for females and males was 75% and 27% respectively. Osteoporosis was associated with bacteriuria. Ribotypes of consecutive Escherichia coli isolates indicated that each patient harboured a different strain. CONCLUSIONS: asymptomatic bacteriuria in the elderly is a dynamic and transient phenomenon. Osteoporosis is common among this population. Ribotyping is a powerful tool in the elucidation of the epidemiology of this bacteriuria.

Bacterial invasion augments epithelial cytokine responses to Escherichia coli through a lipopolysaccharide-dependent mechanism.

One mechanism of initiating innate host defenses against uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the production of cytokines by bladder epithelial cells; however, the means by which these cells recognize bacterial pathogens is poorly understood. Type 1 pili, expressed by the majority of UPEC, have been shown to have a critical role in inducing the expression of IL-6 in bladder epithelial cells after exposure to E. coli. In this study, we demonstrate that type 1 pili are not sufficient to activate IL-6 production by bladder epithelial cells. Instead, it was shown that bacterial invasion mediated by type 1 pili augments bladder epithelial responses to E. coli via an LPS-dependent mechanism, leading to the production of IL-6. RNA transcripts for the LPSR Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was detected in cultured bladder epithelial cells. The in vivo role of TLR4 was assessed using C3H/HeJ mice, which express a dominant negative form of TLR4. After infection with UPEC, C3H/HeJ mice have large foci of intracellular bacteria that persist within the bladder epithelium in the absence of any notable inflammatory response. These results indicate that LPS is required for bacterial invasion to enhance host responses to E. coli within the bladder.