Functional characterization of polyphenol oxidase OfPPO2 supports its involvement in parallel biosynthetic pathways of acteoside.

Acteoside is a bioactive phenylethanoid glycoside widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom. Because of its two catechol moieties, acteoside displays a variety of beneficial activities. The biosynthetic pathway of acteoside has been largely elucidated, but the assembly logic of two catechol moieties in acteoside remains unclear. Here, we identified a novel polyphenol oxidase OfPPO2 from Osmanthus fragrans, which could hydroxylate various monophenolic substrates, including tyrosine, tyrosol, tyramine, 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde, salidroside, and osmanthuside A, leading to the formation of corresponding catechol-containing intermediates for acteoside biosynthesis. OfPPO2 could also convert osmanthuside B into acteoside, creating catechol moieties directly via post-modification of the acteoside skeleton. The reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis and subcellular localization assay further support the involvement of OfPPO2 in acteoside biosynthesis in planta. These findings suggest that the biosynthesis of acteoside in O. fragrans may follow "parallel routes" rather than the conventionally considered linear route. In support of this hypothesis, the glycosyltransferase OfUGT and the acyltransferase OfAT could direct the flux of diphenolic intermediates generated by OfPPO2 into acteoside. Significantly, OfPPO2 and its orthologs constitute a functionally conserved enzyme family that evolved independently from other known biosynthetic enzymes of acteoside, implying that the substrate promiscuity of this PPO family may offer acteoside-producing plants alternative ways to synthesize acteoside. Overall, this work expands our understanding of parallel pathways plants may employ to efficiently synthesize acteoside, a strategy that may contribute to plants' adaptation to environmental challenges.

The embryological insight into the relationship between Forsythia and Abeliophyllum (Forsythieae, Oleaceae).

Forsythia saxatilis, a Korean native Forsythia, is recognized as an endangered species in the Korean Red List. We carried out a comprehensive embryological investigation, including a study of the pericarp development, of F. saxatilis and compared it with previously acquired information on the family Oleaceae and also with Abeliophyllum distichum, a close relative of Forsythia. Our results revealed that several embryological features of Forsythia are exclusively comparable with the family Oleaceae, particularly in relation to A. distichum. Despite the differences in fruit types and pericarp ontogeny, Forsythia shares some unique embryological features with Abeliophyllum, for instance the basic type of anther wall development, formation of the nucellar cap, a long micropyle, formation of the obturator and hypostase, and the crushed endotesta. Furthermore, the loculicidal capsule of Forsythia seems to be primitive within the tribe Forsythieae and samara of Abeliophyllum might be evolved from it. In conclusion, a considerable number of synapomorphies of embryological characters supports recent molecular reports and provide additional embryological evidence for the sister-group relationship of Forsythia and Abeliophyllum.

Characterization of OfWRKY3, a transcription factor that positively regulates the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase gene OfCCD4 in Osmanthus fragrans.

The sweet osmanthus carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 4 (OfCCD4) cleaves carotenoids such as ß-carotene and zeaxanthin to yield ß-ionone. OfCCD4 is a member of the CCD gene family, and its promoter contains a W-box palindrome with two reversely oriented TGAC repeats, which are the proposed binding sites of WRKY transcription factors. We isolated three WRKY cDNAs from the petal of Osmanthus fragrans. One of them, OfWRKY3, encodes a protein containing two WRKY domains and two zinc finger motifs. OfWRKY3 and OfCCD4 had nearly identical expression profile in petals of 'Dangui' and 'Yingui' at different flowering stages and showed similar expression patterns in petals treated by salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and abscisic acid. Activation of OfCCD4pro:GUS by OfWRKY3 was detected in coinfiltrated tobacco leaves and very weak GUS activity was detected in control tissues, indicating that OfWRKY3 can interact with the OfCCD4 promoter. Yeast one-hybrid and electrophoretic mobility shift assay showed that OfWRKY3 was able to bind to the W-box palindrome motif present in the OfCCD4 promoter. These results suggest that OfWRKY3 is a positive regulator of the OfCCD4 gene, and might partly account for the biosynthesis of ß-ionone in sweet osmanthus.

Functional characterization of a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 1 and its relation to the carotenoid accumulation and volatile emission during the floral development of Osmanthus fragrans Lour.

Carotenoids are the precursors of important fragrance compounds in flowers of Osmanthus fragrans Lour. var. aurantiacus, which exhibit the highest diversity of carotenoid-derived volatiles among the flowering plants investigated. A cDNA encoding a carotenoid cleavage enzyme, OfCCD1, was identified from transcripts isolated from flowers of O. fragrans Lour. It is shown that the recombinant enzymes cleave carotenes to produce alpha-ionone and beta-ionone in in vitro assays. It was also found that carotenoid content, volatile emissions, and OfCCD1 transcript levels are subjected to photorhythmic changes and principally increased during daylight hours. At the times when OfCCD1 transcript levels reached their maxima, the carotenoid content remained low or slightly decreased. The emission of ionones was also higher during the day; however, emissions decreased at a lower rate than the transcript levels. Moreover, carotenoid content increased from the first to the second day, whereas the volatile release decreased, and the OfCCD1 transcript levels displayed steady-state oscillations, suggesting that the substrate availability in the cellular compartments is changing or other regulatory factors are involved in volatile norisoprenoid formation. Furthermore, the sensory evaluation of the aroma of the model mixtures suggests that the proportionally higher contribution of alpha-ionone and beta-ionone to total volatile emissions in the evening is probably the reason for the increased perception by humans of the scent emission of Osmanthus flowers.

Characterization of the lipoxygenases in some olive cultivars and determination of their role in volatile compounds formation.

Enzymatic extracts from olive pulp (Olea europea L.) were used to characterize lipoxygenase (LOX) activity in order to determine its role in the biogenesis of the volatile compounds that influence the aroma of extra virgin olive oil. The LOX activity was tested spectrophotometrically at an optimal pH of 6.0 in three olive cultivars, Ascolana Tenera, Kalamata, and FS17. The trend of the LOX activity was determined as a function of pH and temperature; the kinetic constants of the enzyme were also determined. The highest LOX activity was observed in the FS17 fruit, which had the highest concentrations of C(5) and C(6) compounds (aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones), followed by Kalamata and Ascolana T., respectively. Given the direct relationship between enzymatic activity and the quantity of aromas measured in the fruit, it is hypothesized that olive LOX is involved in the formation of C(5) and C(6) volatile compounds. To study the mechanism of the movement of the aromas from the fruit to the oil, which was obtained by simple mechanical extraction, the headspace of the oil for each cultivar was analyzed as well as the aromatic composition in order to compare it with the aromas of the fruit.

Cloning and expression analysis of three critical triterpenoid pathway genes in Osmanthus fragrans

Background: Osmanthus fragrans is an important ornamental tree and has been widely planted in China because of its pleasant aroma, which is mainly due to terpenes. The monoterpenoid and sesquiterpenoid metabolic pathways of sweet osmanthus have been well studied. However, these studies were mainly focused on volatile small molecule compounds. The molecular regulation mechanism of synthesis of large molecule compounds (triterpenoids) remains unclear. Squalene synthase (SQS), squalene epoxidase (SQE), and beta-amyrin synthase (BETA-AS) are three critical enzymes of the triterpenoid biosynthesis pathway. Results: In this study, the full-length cDNA and gDNA sequences of OfSQS, OfSQE, and OfBETA-AS were isolated from sweet osmanthus. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that OfSQS and OfSQE had the closest relationship with Sesamum indicum, and OfBETA-AS sequence shared the highest similarity of 99% with that of Olea europaea. The qRT-PCR analysis revealed that the three genes were highly expressed in flowers, especially OfSQE and OfBETA-AS, which were predominantly expressed in the flowers of both "Boye" and "Rixiang" cultivars, suggesting that they might play important roles in the accumulation of triterpenoids in flowers of O. fragrans. Furthermore, the expression of OfBETA-AS in the two cultivars was significantly different during all the five flowering stages; this suggested that OfBETA-AS may be the critical gene for the differences in the accumulation of triterpenoids. Conclusion: The evidence indicates that OfBETA-AS could be the key gene in the triterpenoid synthesis pathway, and it could also be used as a critical gene resource in the synthesis of essential oils by using bioengineered bacteria.

Plant genetics. Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests.

Early domestication and extensive cultivation have meant that staple Mediterranean fruit crops such as olives, grapes and dates exist in wild-looking forms that are secondary derivatives produced by sexual reproduction among cultivated plants (cultivars), which were initially propagated vegetatively. By using genetic markers associated with characters that render plants unsuitable for domestication, we show here that genuinely wild olive trees, which cannot be distinguished morphologically from feral forms, still survive in a few Mediterranean forests. These wild stocks are genetically distinct and more variable than either the crop strains or their derived feral forms, a finding that has important implications for the conservation of these ancient lineages.