Advancing our understanding of bioreactors for industrial-sized cell culture: health care and cellular agriculture implications.

Bioreactors are advanced biomanufacturing tools that have been widely used to develop various applications in the fields of health care and cellular agriculture. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of bioreactors to enhance the efficiency and scalability of these technologies. In cell therapy, bioreactors have been used to expand and differentiate cells into specialized cell types that can be used for transplantation or tissue regeneration. In cultured meat production, bioreactors offer a controlled and efficient means of producing meat without the need for animal farming. Bioreactors can support the growth of muscle cells by providing the necessary conditions for cell proliferation, differentiation, and maturation, including the provision of oxygen and nutrients. This review article aims to provide an overview of the current state of bioreactor technology in both cell therapy and cultured meat production. It will examine the various bioreactor types and their applications in these fields, highlighting their advantages and limitations. In addition, it will explore the future prospects and challenges of bioreactor technology in these emerging fields. Overall, this review will provide valuable insights for researchers and practitioners interested in using bioreactor technology to develop innovative solutions in the biomanufacturing of therapeutic cells and cultured meat.

The origin, supply chain, and deforestation risk of Brazil's beef exports.

Though the international trade in agricultural commodities is worth more than $1.6 trillion/year, we still have a poor understanding of the supply chains connecting places of production and consumption and the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of this trade. In this study, we provide a wall-to-wall subnational map of the origin and supply chain of Brazilian meat, offal, and live cattle exports from 2015 to 2017, a trade worth more than $5.4 billion/year. Brazil is the world's largest beef exporter, exporting approximately one-fifth of its production, and the sector has a notable environmental footprint, linked to one-fifth of all commodity-driven deforestation across the tropics. By combining official per-shipment trade records, slaughterhouse export licenses, subnational agricultural statistics, and data on the origin of cattle per slaughterhouse, we mapped the flow of cattle from more than 2,800 municipalities where cattle were raised to 152 exporting slaughterhouses where they were slaughtered, via the 204 exporting and 3,383 importing companies handling that trade, and finally to 152 importing countries. We find stark differences in the subnational origin of the sourcing of different actors and link this supply chain mapping to spatially explicit data on cattle-associated deforestation, to estimate the "deforestation risk" (in hectares/year) of each supply chain actor over time. Our results provide an unprecedented insight into the global trade of a deforestation-risk commodity and demonstrate the potential for improved supply chain transparency based on currently available data.

Occurrence of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase and AmpC-producing Escherichia coli in retail meat products from the Maritime Provinces, Canada.

This study was conducted to determine the occurrence of antimicrobial resistance to the extended-spectrum cephalosporins (ESC) in Escherichia coli isolates. The isolates were collected from retail meat products collected in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Our analyses involved the use of both selective and traditional culture methods; we also conducted genotype analyses using multiplex polymerase chain reactions. ESC-resistant (ESC-R) E. coli were detected in 33 of 559 samples (5.9%) using the traditional culture method, compared with 151 of 557 samples (27.1%) using the selective culture method. We recovered more isolates of ESC-R E. coli from poultry compared with beef and pork (P < 0.001). Multidrug resistance, extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL), and AmpC phenotypes were more common in chicken-derived isolates than other retail meat products (P < 0.001). From the 98 isolates examined, 76 isolates (77.6%) were positive for either ESBL and AmpC ß-lactamases or both. Among the 76 isolates, blaCMY-2 (78.9%), blaCTXM (46.1%), blaTEM (21.1%), and blaSHV (1.3%) genes were detected. Among the blaCTXM-producing isolates, blaCTXM-1, blaCTXM-2, and blaCTXM-9 phylogenetic groups were detected. ß-lactamase genes were more commonly detected in chicken-derived isolates compared with other meat types (P < 0.01). This study demonstrates the occurrence of ESBL- and AmpC-resistance genes in retail meat products in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. We found that selective culture significantly improved the recovery of ESC-R E. coli isolates from retail meat samples.

Quantitative risk assessment of Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat (RTE) cooked meat products sliced at retail stores in Greece.

A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model predicting the listeriosis risk related to the consumption of Ready- To- Eat (RTE) cooked meat products sliced at retail stores in Greece was developed. The probability of illness per serving assessed for 87 products available in the Greek market was found highly related to the nitrite concentration; products having a lower concentration showed a higher risk per serving. The predicted 95th percentiles of the annual listeriosis cases totaled 33 of which 13 cases were <65 years old and 20 cases ≥65 years old. The highest number of cases was predicted for mortadella, smoked turkey, boiled turkey and parizer, which were the most frequently consumed product categories. Two scenarios for assessing potential interventions to reduce the risk were tested: setting a use-by date of 14 days (these products have no use-by date based on current European Union legislation) and improving the temperature control during domestic storage. The two scenarios resulted in a decrease of the 95th and 99th percentiles of the total annual cases by 97% and 88%, respectively.

What are the potential preventive population-health effects of a tax on processed meat? A quantitative health impact assessment for Germany.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer considers processed meat to be carcinogenic. Further, processed meat is associated with diabetes, ischemic heart disease (IHD) and all-cause mortality. We aimed to assess health gains of four processed meat taxation scenarios in comparison to the reference and a minimum-risk-exposure-scenario. To estimate the shift in processed meat intake following respective taxes, we calculated price elasticities for processed meat. DYNAMO-HIA was used to dynamically project policy-attributable differences in the prevalence of diseases and deaths. In projection year 10, an extra 9300 males and 4500 females would be alive under the lowest tax scenario (4% tax), compared to the reference scenario. Prevalent IHD, diabetes and colorectal cancer cases in males would be 8400, 9500 and 500 lower, respectively, and there would be 4600, 7800 and 300 less cases in females. Of the respective death and disease reduction that would be achieved under the minimum-risk-exposure-scenario, the lowest tax reaches 2.84% (colorectal cancer in males) to 6.02% (diabetes in females). Under the highest tax scenario (33.3% tax), an extra 76,700 males and 37,100 females would be alive, compared to the reference scenario. Prevalent IHD, diabetes and colorectal cancer cases would be 70,800, 77,900 and 4900 lower in males and 29,900, 48,900 and 2300 lower in females, which represents 27.84% (colorectal cancer in males) to 37.76% (diabetes in females) of the maximal preventable death and disease burden. Further research needs to examine to what extent these health benefits are outweighed by a simultaneous tax-induced decrease in fish intake.

Explicit and implicit attitude toward an emerging food technology: The case of cultured meat.

Cultured meat is an unfamiliar emerging food technology that could provide a near endless supply of high quality protein with a relatively small ecological footprint. To understand consumer acceptance of cultured meat, this study investigated the influence of information provision on the explicit and implicit attitude toward cultured meat. Three experiments were conducted using a Solomon four-group design to rule out pretest sensitization effects. The first experiment (N = 190) showed that positive or negative information about cultured meat changed the explicit attitude in the direction of the information. This effect was smaller for participants who were more familiar with cultured meat. In the second experiment (N = 194) positive information was provided about solar panels, an attitude object belonging to the same sustainable product category as sustainable food products such as cultured meat. Positive information about solar panels was found to change the explicit attitude in the direction of the information. Using mood induction, the third experiment (N = 192) ruled out the alternative explanation that explicit attitude change in experiment 1 and 2 was caused by content free affect rather than category based inferences. The implicit attitude appeared insensitive to both information or mood state in all three experiments. These findings show that the explicit attitude toward cultured meat can be influenced by information about the sustainability of cultured meat and information about a positively perceived sustainable product. This effect was shown to be content based rather than merely affect based. Content based information in a relevant context could therefore contribute to the commercial success of cultured meat.

Is the future of meat palatable? Perceptions of in vitro meat as evidenced by online news comments.

OBJECTIVE: To understand current public perceptions of in vitro meat (IVM) in light of its potential to be a more environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional meat. DESIGN: A qualitative content analysis of the comments made on online news articles highlighting the development of IVM and the world's first IVM hamburger in August 2013. SETTING: News article comment sections across seven US-based online news sources (The New York Times, The Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, USA Today, Cable News Network and National Public Radio). SUBJECTS: Four hundred and sixty-two commenters who made eight hundred and fourteen publicly available online comments addressing IVM. RESULTS: Key themes in commenter perceptions of IVM included environmental and public health benefits, but also negative themes such as IVM's status as an unnatural and unappealing food. Overall, the tone of comments was more negative than positive. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that while the environmental and public health motivations for developing and in turn consuming IVM resonate with some segments of the population, others find that reasoning both uncompelling and problematic. Concerns about IVM as an unnatural and risky product also appear to be a significant barrier to public acceptance of IVM. Supporters of IVM may wish to begin to develop a regulatory strategy for IVM to build public trust and explore messaging strategies that cast IVM as a new technology with benefits to individuals rather than primarily a solution to global challenges. Those in the public health nutrition field can make an important contribution to the emerging public discussion about IVM.

Red and processed meat consumption and purchasing behaviours and attitudes: impacts for human health, animal welfare and environmental sustainability.

OBJECTIVE: Higher intakes of red and processed meat are associated with poorer health outcomes and negative environmental impacts. Drawing upon a population survey the present paper investigates meat consumption behaviours, exploring perceived impacts for human health, animal welfare and the environment. DESIGN: Structured self-completion postal survey relating to red and processed meat, capturing data on attitudes, sustainable meat purchasing behaviour, red and processed meat intake, plus sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. SETTING: Urban and rural districts of Nottinghamshire, East Midlands, UK, drawn from the electoral register. SUBJECTS: UK adults (n 842) aged 18-91 years, 497 females and 345 males, representing a 35·6 % response rate from 2500 randomly selected residents. RESULTS: Women were significantly more likely (P60 years) were more likely to hold positive attitudes towards animal welfare (P<0·01). Less than a fifth (18·4 %) of the sample agreed that the impact of climate change could be reduced by consuming less meat, dairy products and eggs. Positive attitudes towards animal welfare were associated with consuming less meat and a greater frequency of 'higher welfare' meat purchases. CONCLUSIONS: Human health and animal welfare are more common motivations to avoid red and processed meat than environmental sustainability. Policy makers, nutritionists and health professionals need to increase the public's awareness of the environmental impact of eating red and processed meat. A first step could be to ensure that dietary guidelines integrate the nutritional, animal welfare and environmental components of sustainable diets.

Quantification and viability assays of Toxoplasma gondii in commercial "Serrano" ham samples using magnetic capture real-time qPCR and bioassay techniques.

"Serrano" ham is a typical pork product from the Mediterranean area, highly valued for its flavour. To make Serrano ham, pork undergoes a salting and a subsequent fermentation process known as curing. Certain pigs used for meat production are an important source of Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans. We have developed a method for quantifying and assaying the viability of the T. gondii present in commercial Serrano ham samples. A magnetic capture method for the isolation of T. gondii DNA and a qRT-PCR were used to estimate the T. gondii burden in 475 commercial samples of "Serrano" ham in two presentation formats: ham pieces and sliced ham. The infectivity capacity of T. gondii in positive samples was assayed in mice. The global prevalence of T. gondii was 8.84%, ranging from 32.35% in one of the companies to 0% prevalence in three other companies. The infectivity assays revealed that only 4.84% of the positive samples were infective. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report focussing on the prevalence of T. gondii in commercial "Serrano" ham. The method described here could be useful for producers to guarantee the safety of their products.

Persistent and transient Listeria monocytogenes strains from retail deli environments vary in their ability to adhere and form biofilms and rarely have inlA premature stop codons.

Based on recent risk assessments, up to 83% of listeriosis cases from deli meat in the United States are predicted to be from ready-to-eat deli meats contaminated during processing at retail grocery stores. Listeria monocytogenes is known to use sanitizer tolerance and biofilm formation to survive, but interplay of these mechanisms along with virulence potential and persistence mechanisms specific to deli environments had yet to be elucidated. In this study, 442 isolates from food and nonfood contact surfaces in 30 retail delis over 9 months were tested for inlA premature stop codons (PMSCs); inlA encodes InlA, which is necessary to cause listeriosis. A total of 96 isolates, composed of 23 persistent and 73 transient strains, were tested for adhesion and biofilm-forming ability and sanitizer tolerance. Only 10/442 isolates had inlA PMSCs (p<0.001). Strains with PMSCs were not persistent, even in delis with other persistent strains. Most (7/10) PMSC-containing isolates were collected from food contact surfaces (p<0.001); 6/10 PMSC-containing isolates were found in moderate prevalence delis (p<0.05). Persistent strains had enhanced adhesion on day 1 of a 5-day adhesion-biofilm formation assay. However, there was no significant difference in sanitizer tolerance between persistent and transient strains. Results suggest that foods contaminated with persistent L. monocytogenes strains from the retail environment are (1) likely to have wild-type virulence potential and (2) may persist due to increased adhesion and biofilm formation capacity rather than sanitizer tolerance, thus posing a significant public health risk.

Effect of the addition of chia's by-product on the composition of fatty acids in hamburgers through chemometric methods.

BACKGROUND: Hamburger is a meat-based food that is easy to prepare and is widely consumed. It can be enriched using different ingredients, such as chia's by-product, which is rich in omega-3. Chemometrics is a very interesting tool to assess the influence of ingredients in the composition of foods. A complete factorial design 2(2) (two factors in two levels) with duplicate was performed to investigate the influence of the factors (1) concentration of textured soy proteins (TSP) and (2) concentration of chia flour partially defatted (CFPD) as a partial replacement for the bovine meat and porcine fat mix in hamburgers. RESULTS: The results of proximal composition, lipid oxidation, fatty acids sums, ratios, and nutritional indexes were used to propose statistical models. The factors TSP and CFPD were significant, and the increased values contributed to improve the composition in fatty acids, crude protein, and ash. Principal components analysis distinguished the samples with a higher content of chia. In desirability analysis, the highest level of TSP and CFPD was described as the optimal region, and it was not necessary to make another experimental point. CONCLUSION: The addition of chia's by-product is an alternative to increase the α-linolenic contents and to obtain nutritionally balanced food.

Numbers of coliforms, Escherichia coli, F-RNA phage, rotavirus, bovine enteric calicivirus and presence of non-O157 STEC on commercial vacuum packaged beef.

The numbers of coliforms, Escherichia coli, F-RNA coliphages, bovine enteric calicivirus (BEC) and rotavirus (RV) and presence of non-O157 shiga toxigenic E. coli (STEC) were determined on commercial vacuum packaged beef subprimals at the retail level from swabs obtained from the entire surfaces of 150 cuts that originated from federally and provincially registered plants. The prevalence and log mean numbers of E. coli were higher in provincially registered plants than in federally registered plants; 64% vs 20%, respectively, and -0.3 vs -1.22 log cfu/100 cm(2), respectively. In contrast, the prevalence and mean log numbers of F-RNA coliphages were lower for the provincially registered plants than for the federally registered plants; 31% vs 68% and -0.86 vs -0.13 log cfu/100 cm(2), respectively. One E. coli sample tested positive for stx2 and eae. F-RNA coliphages associated with human origin (GII/GIII) were detected in 12% and 30% of samples that originated from provincially and federally registered plants, respectively. RV RNA was detected in 4% of samples while BEC RNA was not detected. Although the infectivity of RV is unknown, the presence of viable F-RNA coliphages suggests that consumers could potentially be at risk when consuming undercooked meat that is contaminated with RV.

Which is the best grape seed additive for frankfurters: extract, oil or flour?

BACKGROUND: Grape seed products (winery by-products) are valuable vegetable sources to enhance the quality of meat products. In this study, 21 treatments of frankfurters, in three different groups, including 0%, 0.01%, 0.03%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.3% and 0.5% grape seed extract (GSE), 0%, 1%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% and 10% grape seed oil (GSO), and 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% grape seed flour (GSF) were produced in order to compare the differences among them during refrigerated storage for 90 days. RESULTS: Increasing the level of GSO made the frankfurters lighter in color (P < 0.05). Lipid oxidation of all the 21 frankfurters were under the limit of deterioration (2.0 mg malonaldehite kg⁻¹ treatment) during 90 days' storage. However, increasing the amount of additives (GSE, GSO and GSF) led to a decrease in overall acceptability for each group. According to the general comparison of the three frankfurter groups in terms of lipid oxidation, TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) values of the frankfurters including GSE and GSF were found to be similar, but the frankfurters containing GSO exhibited the highest lipid oxidation (P < 0.05). While the products including GSE were the most acceptable group in terms of overall acceptability, the group produced with GSF received the lowest points (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Although the three grape seed products have partially undesirable effects on the sensory characteristics of the frankfurters, all these additives showed different positive influences in the production of frankfurters. The results showed that the group of frankfurters including GSE was the best of three different groups of products due to the lipid oxidation and overall acceptability results.

Assessment of Nutritional Adequacy of Packaged Gluten-free Food Products.

PURPOSE: There is concern about the nutritional quality of processed gluten-free (GF) products. The aim was to investigate the nutrient composition and cost of processed GF products compared with similar regular products. METHODS: Product size, price, caloric value, and macro- and micronutrient composition were compared between foods labeled "Gluten-free" and comparable regular products in 5 grocery stores in 3 Canadian cities. Data were calculated per 100 g of product. RESULTS: A total of 131 products were studied (71 GF, 60 regular). Overall, calories were comparable between GF and regular foods. However, fat content of GF breads was higher (mean 7.7 vs. 3.6 g, P = 0.003), whereas protein was lower (mean 5.0 vs. 8.0 g, P = 0.001). Mean carbohydrate content of GF pasta was higher (78 vs. 74 g, P = 0.001), whereas protein (7.5 vs. 13.3 g, P < 0.001), fibre (3.3 vs. 5.8 g, P = 0.048), iron (9% vs. 25%DV, P < 0.001), and folate content (5% vs. 95%DV, P < 0.001) were lower. Mean price of GF products was $1.99 versus $1.23 for regular products (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Some commonly consumed packaged GF foods are higher in fat and carbohydrates and lower in protein, iron, and folate compared with regular products. GF products are more expensive. Dietitians should counsel patients on the GF diet regarding its nutritional and financial impact.

Making choices: ethics and vegetarianism.

I was seventeen and taking an elective course in Earth and Environmental Science. We were learning about farming and the food system­genetic modification, land use, organic labeling­when our teacher assigned us an article about beef. The article explained the following process: the U.S. government subsidizes corn, so we feed it to our cows, because corn is cheap and fattens the cows up quickly. Cows are biologically designed to eat grass, so their livers are unable to process the corn. The cows' livers would actually explode if they were permitted to grow to full maturity, but we slaughter them first. This, combined with their living in close quarters and wading in their own feces, causes the cows to get ill often, so we feed them a con-stant stream of antibiotics, a practice that strengthens bacterial strains such as E. coli. Roughly 78 percent of cows raised for beef undergo this process. Similarly nauseating practices are used to raise chickens, turkeys, and pigs, 99 percent, 97 percent, and 95 percent of which, respectively, come from factory farms. Nowadays, these details are less than shocking. Movies such as Food, Inc. and Super Size Me, as well as books such as The Omnivore's Dilemma and Fast Food Nation have raised consciousness, if not much action, on the topic of our food system. But, for me, it was a new story.

Assessing levels of traditionality and naturalness depicted on labels of fermented meat products in the retail: Exploring relations with price, quality and branding strategy.

Food labelling is a tool to inform consumers about the specifications and characteristics of a product. Additionally, labels display information about traditionality and naturalness, of which the meaning is highly subjective. There is a paucity of research examining attributes both of tradition and naturalness. In this study, traditionality was assessed by a model that included temporal, geographical, know-how, and cultural components. Naturalness was evaluated based on bio/organic elements, 'free-from' claims, and natural ingredients. Therefore, a content analysis tool was developed to analyze and score labels of fermented meat products, which generated insights in the key label characteristics of tradition and naturalness. The degree of tradition and naturalness was the average of their subdimensions which were scored based on the displayed elements. A higher degree of tradition and naturalness was linked to higher prices. Fermented meat labels were found to be strongly embedded in 'authenticity', and less in naturalness, an element more attractive for private labels than for branded products.

Do consumers prefer pasture-raised dual-purpose cattle when considering meat products? A hypothetical discrete choice experiment for the case of minced beef.

Livestock production is criticised for animal welfare conditions and its impact on the environment. Pasture-raised dual-purpose cattle may be able to provide an opportunity for more sustainable livestock production. Despite societal interest and substantial grazing opportunities in several regions of northern Europe, the market share of sustainably produced beef is currently low. This study investigated consumer preferences and willingness-to-pay for pasture-raised beef from dual-purpose cattle. Data were obtained from a hypothetical choice experiment (n = 513), attributing the type of husbandry (stable-based, pasture-raised, pasture-raised using nature conservation areas), breed (no description, single-purpose, dual-purpose), production method (conventional, organic), origin (locally produced, produced in Germany), and price (5.98, 11.98, 17.98, 23.98 €/kg), and were analysed using random parameter logit modelling. The most important overall attribute was 'type of husbandry' followed by 'breed', indicating consumers' concerns for animal welfare and naturalness. Our analyses revealed a clear preference for pasture-raised dual-purpose cattle, demonstrating great market potential for animal welfare-friendly meat products.

Optimal raw material formulation to produce pressed pork ham at the least cost.

This study optimized material use for making pressed pork hams (PPHs) using the least cost formulation program. Based on protein (P) content, different fat (2.5, 3.0, and 4.0P) and moisture (4.0P + 10, 4.0P + 15, 4.0P + 20, and 4.0P + 25) ratios were applied to make PPHs. Total expressible fluid, cooking loss, and purge loss were highest in PPHs formulated with 4.0P + 25 water (P < 0.05). With increasing fat ratio, lightness increased, but redness decreased (P < 0.05). Lipid oxidation was not affected by moisture ratio (P > 0.05). Hardness, gumminess, and adhesiveness decreased with increased fat and moisture (P < 0.05). PPH cost was reduced by fat and moisture. These results suggest that the formulations with 4.0P + 15 moisture, regardless of fat ratio, are recommended for PPHs due to their moderate cost and quality characteristics. In addition, greater cost savings can be expected by further subdividing raw material criteria for industrial applications.

Biofuel, dairy production and beef in Brazil: competing claims on land use in São Paulo state.

This paper examines the competing claims on land use resulting from the expansion of biofuel production. Sugarcane for biofuel drives agrarian change in So Paulo state, which has become the major ethanol-producing region in Brazil. We analyse how the expansion of sugarcane-based ethanol in So Paulo state has impacted dairy and beef production. Historical changes in land use, production technologies, and product and land prices are described, as well as how these are linked to changing policies in Brazil. We argue that sugarcane/biofuel expansion should be understood in the context of the dynamics of other agricultural sectors and the long-term national political economy rather than as solely due to recent global demand for biofuel. This argument is based on a meticulous analysis of changes in three important sectors - sugarcane, dairy farming, and beef production - and the mutual interactions between these sectors.

A questionnaire survey of the illegal importation of pork products by air travelers into Japan from China and exploration of causal factors.

With the aim of obtaining information to establish an import risk assessment on African swine fever (ASF) and other transboundary animal diseases (TADs) into Japan, a questionnaire survey was conducted between 1 August and 20 September 2019 on air travellers arriving into Japan from China. There were 248 responses with 2.8 % of respondents illegally importing pork products. The quantity imported per traveller varied between 250 g and 2 kg. Concerning the travellers' perception in regard to the difficulty of importing a pork product in their luggage, 32 respondents (12.9 %) considered it very easy or rather easy and 216 (87.1 %) very difficult or rather difficult. In regard to the recognition of respondents of the illegality of importing pork products into Japan, seven respondents (2.8 %) did not consider this practice to be illegal whilst 241 (97.2 %) had some idea of the illegal nature of this behaviour. The regression analysis revealed that the practice of illegal importation of pork products was significantly affected by the level of difficulty perception held by the traveller (P < 0.001) and that the difficulty perception is significantly affected by the level of recognition of illegality by the traveller (P < 0.001). The result of this study will not only provide useful data in developing a model to assess the probability of introduction of ASF and other TADs into Japan and other countries, but also in monitoring the effect of measures taken by the government to reduce the illegal importation of meat and meat products.