Body Compatible Thermometer Based on Green Electrolytes.

With the use of coordinated complexes between aliphatic diols and calcium chloride (CaCl2) as green electrolytes, a body compatible, ecofriendly and low-cost thermometer is successfully developed. This particular conductive liquid possesses unique features of ultrafast response and high sensitivity against temperature change. The influences of CaCl2 concentration and the category of aliphatic diols on conductivity change reveal that the thermal sensing abilities of such green electrolytes are positively relevant to the viscosity change along with temperature change. Owing to the advantages of stability, reliability, and security, the thermometer can implement long-term and continuous temperature monitoring, which can fully meet the requirements of application of medical monitors, diagnostics, and therapies. Moreover, the inherent advantages of thermometers, including satisfactory biocompatibility and nontoxicity, afford great promise for applications in invasive and inflammatory devices.

Which thermometer? Factors influencing best choice for intermittent clinical temperature assessment.

The objectives of this study are (a) to review the current technologies, (b) to examine comparative costing data for six selected representative devices, and (c) to discuss the clinical factors related to selection of devices for intermittent temperature measurement. Financial estimates indicate that mercury-in-glass thermometers are the cheapest devices. Compact electronic and chemical (phase change) thermometers are cheaper alternatives than multi-patient contact thermometers requiring probe covers and infrared sensing models, which are commonly adopted in hospitals and clinical practice. However, time required to obtain readings will influence overall costs. Rigorous independent clinical research studies are now needed to establish which of these alternative technologies are 'fit for purpose'. As a minimum they should offer comparable clinical accuracy and reliability to mercury-in-glass and be suitable for most clinical measurement situations. Furthermore any additional costs should bring demonstrable benefits to the patient, user and healthcare system.

A randomized crossover study of disposable thermometers for prevention of Clostridium difficile and other nosocomial infections.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that use of disposable thermometers would result in lower rates of nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea and of total nosocomial infections, compared with electronic thermometers. DESIGN: Prospective randomized crossover trial. SETTING: A 700-bed university hospital providing primary and tertiary care. PATIENTS: All patients admitted to a group of 20 inpatient nursing units. INTERVENTIONS: 20 nursing units were randomized into two groups. One group randomly was assigned exclusive use of single-use disposable thermometers for patient temperature measurement, and the other group was assigned exclusive use of electronic thermometers. After 6 months, the assignments were reversed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rates of C difficile infections, total nosocomial diarrheal episodes, and total nosocomial infections were prospectively followed in each study unit over 11 months. RESULTS: 26,350 patients were admitted to the study units and hospitalized for 120,529 patient days. There were 947 nosocomial infections (7.86 per 1,000 patient days). Nosocomial C difficile-associated diarrhea defined by positivity to both toxin B (titer > or = 1:10) and toxin A was detected in 32 patients (3.4% of all nosocomial infections). A significantly lower rate of nosocomial C difficile-associated diarrhea was observed with disposable thermometer use (0.16 per 1,000 patient days) compared with electronic thermometer use (0.37 per 1,000 patient days, relative risk [RR] = 0.44; 95% confidence interval [CI95], 0.21-0.93, P = .026). There was no difference in overall rates of nosocomial infection between the disposable and electronic groups (8.03 and 7.68 infections per 1,000 patient days, respectively; RR, 1.04; CI95, 0.92-1.19; P = .52) or in the overall rate of nosocomial diarrhea (3.34 and 3.40 per 1,000 patient days, respectively; RR, .98; CI95, 0.81-1.19; P = .87). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of nosocomial C difficile diarrhea was reduced significantly by using single-use, disposable thermometers as compared with electronic thermometers, but there was no effect on either the overall rate of nosocomial diarrhea or the rate of total nosocomial infections.

Reduction in the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in an acute care hospital and a skilled nursing facility following replacement of electronic thermometers with single-use disposables.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if the spread of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea is related to the use of electronic thermometers in an acute hospital and a chronic healthcare facility. DESIGN: After finding that a significant percentage (20.8%) of electronic rectal thermometer handles were contaminated with C difficile, all electronic thermometers were replaced with disposables. A before/after trial was conducted to determine if the change to disposable thermometers would reduce the incidence of C difficile-associated diarrhea. SETTING: The study took place in a 343-bed acute hospital and a 538-bed skilled nursing facility. PATIENTS: All patients who underwent routine microbiological evaluation for nosocomially acquired diarrhea over a 1-year period were included in the study. Nosocomial diarrhea was defined as 3 or more loose stools per day for 2 consecutive days and/or abdominal findings such as pain, distension, and ileus occurring 3 or more days after admission. RESULTS: During the 6-month postintervention period, the incidence of C difficile-associated diarrhea was reduced from 2.71/1,000 patient days to 1.76/1,000 patient days in the acute hospital and from 0.41/1,000 patient days to 0.11/1,000 patient days in the skilled nursing facility. The protective effect of the intervention was statistically significant for both facilities. CONCLUSIONS: Replacement of electronic thermometers with single-use disposables significantly reduced the incidence of C difficile-associated diarrhea in both acute care and skilled nursing care facilities. Data suggest that the rectal route may be important in the transmission of C difficile in these settings.

Tympanic versus rectal thermometry in pregnant women.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of the tympanic membrane thermometer for use with pregnant women. DESIGN: Cross-sectional descriptive study. SETTING: A major medical center in the midwestern United States. PARTICIPANTS: Thirty-three hospitalized, afebrile pregnant women. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Tympanic membrane thermometers and glass mercury thermometers were used to measure body temperature at the ear and rectum, respectively. The results were compared using two statistical methods: the Pearson correlation coefficient and a new technique suggested by Bland and Altman (1986). RESULTS: Auditory canal temperature measured by a tympanic membrane thermometer correlated with rectal temperature as measured by a glass mercury thermometer (r = 0.38, p = 0.01). Thus, the tympanic membrane thermometer is acceptable for monitoring the body temperature of pregnant women. However, the device's estimation of rectal temperature is not clinically reliable. CONCLUSIONS: Tympanic membrane thermometers, when applied with direct measures, are acceptable for use with pregnant women. It is not recommended that the rectal estimate mode be used with pregnant women.

Cost effectiveness of tympanic thermometry in the pediatric office setting.

This study was designed to see if tympanic thermometry might be more cost effective than cheaper more traditional methods of thermometry when office staff time saved is taken into account. There were 224 patients enrolled from three private pediatric practices. Patients were alternately assigned to have their temperature taken with either a tympanic thermometer or with a rectal or oral thermometer depending on the patient's age. For each child enrolled in the study a nurse was asked to time the temperature taking process. Items included in the cost analysis: a) thermometer costs; b) disposable supply costs; c) personnel costs; d) equipment service costs. The mean duration of temperature taking was 35.2 seconds using tympanic thermometers, 73.4 seconds using electronic predictive thermometers, and 247.2 seconds using glass thermometers. In practices taking an average of 10 temperatures per day, tympanic thermometry saved $2,316/year when compared to glass thermometers and $442/year when compared to electronic predictive thermometers. The data presented in this study show that when nursing time is taken into account, tympanic thermometry is less expensive to perform than traditional methods of thermometry despite the initial higher cost of the thermometer.

Comparison of standard mercury thermometer and the liquid crystal device skin contact thermometer in febrile children at Eldoret District Hospital.

The purpose of this study was to compare the temperature readings obtained from febrile children using the conventional glass mercury thermometer and the liquid crystal device skin contact thermometer. 56 children with fever were studied irrespective of the cause. In 30 children, the mercury thermometer recorded higher readings than the LCD skin contact thermometer by an average of 0.67 degree C while in 12 children the LCD thermometer recorded higher readings than the mercury thermometer by an average of 0.34 degree C. There was no temperature reading difference in 14 children between the two methods. It is concluded that LCD thermometer is a useful, cost effective, safe and durable alternative to mercury thermometers especially in developing countries.

A comparison of four methods of normal newborn temperature measurement.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to: (a) compare newborn temperature measurements obtained by digital disposable, electronic, and tympanic thermometers with glass mercury thermometers, and (b) compare financial implications of each method. METHODS: In this correlational study, 12 perinatal and neonatal nurses obtained temperature measurements of 184 newborns between 1 and 168 hours of age. The stratified convenience sample was selected using medical records numbers. Temperature instruments included glass thermometer, tympanic thermometer, electronic thermometer, and a digital thermometer. Data were analyzed by Pearson r coefficients, mean, standard deviation, and range using an SPSS statistical package. RESULTS: The glass thermometer, electronic thermometer, and digital thermometer temperature assessments were highly correlated (0.748-1.0). The tympanic thermometer had a low correlation coefficient (0.35). Use of the glass thermometer had the highest accompanying cost. Tympanic thermometers were the most cost effective. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: In healthy newborns, the use of electronic and digital thermometers can be encouraged if there is concern about using glass thermometers. These results cannot be extrapolated to sick infants. While tympanic thermometers had the lowest associated cost, their lack of correlation with the gold standard glass thermometers for accurate temperature assessment makes them a poor choice for healthy newborns.

Development of a cost-effective and MRI compatible temperature measurement system.

A reliable temperature measurement system working inside a MRI-system is required in order to determine the amount of local temperature rise during application of radiofrequency fields on medical implants and thus to ensure patient safety. Hence the aim of this study was to develop a cost-effective temperature measurement system suitable for use in a MRI system to investigate this heating having mainly phantom experiments in mind. Three active temperature measurement systems were set up, the first using a PTC as the temperature sensor, the other two with platinum resistors of 100 omega and 1000 omega. Interference tests in a MRI systems were performed. It could be shown that a stable temperature measurement at a resolution of 0.1 degree C could be established.

Clinical benefits of 3M Tempa.DOT thermometer in paediatric settings.

Single-use clinical thermometers provide a safe alternative to the traditional mercury in glass thermometers for routine temperature taking. This article examines the 3M Tempa.DOT Single-Use Clinical Thermometer and discusses its use in the paediatric setting.

Infrared ear thermometry.

Many hospitals are considering using infrared (IR) ear thermometers (also called tympanic membrane thermometers) as an alternative to traditional temperature-measurement devices. IR technology allows users to quickly and noninvasively measure body temperature by inserting a directional probe into the ear canal. For infection control, ear thermometers offer the advantages of not contacting mucous membranes and eliminating the need for special handling procedures. For use on unconscious patients or those who are otherwise unwilling or unable to cooperate with traditional techniques, IR ear thermometers offer a more comfortable and less stressful method of temperature taking for both patients and nurses, especially where rectal temperatures are used. The recent entry into this market by major companies and distributors and the release of several new IR ear thermometers have helped to further stimulate interest in this technology. However, a complete transition to IR ear thermometers throughout the hospital may not be necessary and should be made only after these devices have been successfully used in selected clinical locations, such as emergency departments, critical care areas, recovery areas, and labor and delivery rooms. Clinical users must be familiar with the technique needed for temperature measurement with these instruments and understand the differences between temperatures taken in the ear canal and those obtained from traditional sites. In the following article, we first present and overview of clinical thermometry, describing traditional temperature-measurement sites and devices. We then discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using the ear canal, including the tympanic membrane (TM), as a site for temperature measurement.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Temperature measurement devices.

Nurses should gain an understanding of the physiological mechanisms involved in thermoregulation and be aware of the many variables that affect temperature measurement. The rectum, mouth, axilla and tympanic membrane may be used for temperature measurement. To ensure accurate readings, measurements for each individual should be obtained in a consistent manner.

An investigation into the accuracy of different types of thermometers.

The traditional mercury-in-glass thermometer carries the potential risk of glass breakage and mercury spillage and health-care professionals have sought an alternative. This study examined the accuracy of three other types of temperature-measurement device--disposable, digital and tympanic--when compared with standard mercury thermometer readings.

Comparison of disposable and glass mercury thermometers.

The aim of this study was to compare the accuracy of disposable thermometer recordings with those from a mercury thermometer. The disposable thermometer has heat-sensitive clinical dots that change colour to indicate temperature measurement. The trial provided fascinating information, questioning current nursing practice and the safety of the tools we use. We need to challenge when and with what we record patients' temperatures. The results from the trial suggested that not only did the disposable thermometer record quicker than the mercury thermometer but that it was as accurate and cheaper.

Reviewing the effectiveness of tympanic thermometers.

Tympanic thermometers have become a popular alternative to glass mercury thermometers for recording patients' temperatures. This article reviews studies that have been performed to audit their use in clinical practice. It examines the accuracy of tympanic thermometers and discusses ways to improve the use of this instrument and the implications for nursing practice.

Design of affordable and ruggedized biomedical devices using virtual instrumentation.

Abstract This paper presents the designs of four low-cost and ruggedized biomedical devices, including a blood pressure monitor, thermometer, weighing scale and spirometer, designed for the East African context. The design constraints included a mass-production price point of $10, accuracy and precision comparable to commercial devices and ruggedness to function effectively in the harsh environment of East Africa. The blood pressure device, thermometer and weighing scale were field-tested in Kenya and each recorded data within 6% error of the measurements from commercial devices and withstood the adverse climate and rough handling. The spirometer functioned according to specifications, but a re-design is needed to improve operability and usability by patients. This article demonstrates the feasibility of designing and commercializing virtual instrumentation-based biomedical devices in resource-constrained environments through context-driven design. The next steps for the devices include designing them such that they can be more easily manufactured, use standardized materials, are easily calibrated in the field and have more user-friendly software programs that can be updated remotely.