Exposure to Electrophiles Impairs Reactive Persulfide-Dependent Redox Signaling in Neuronal Cells.

Electrophiles such as methylmercury (MeHg) affect cellular functions by covalent modification with endogenous thiols. Reactive persulfide species were recently reported to mediate antioxidant responses and redox signaling because of their strong nucleophilicity. In this study, we used MeHg as an environmental electrophile and found that exposure of cells to the exogenous electrophile elevated intracellular concentrations of the endogenous electrophilic molecule 8-nitroguanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8-nitro-cGMP), accompanied by depletion of reactive persulfide species and 8-SH-cGMP which is a metabolite of 8-nitro-cGMP. Exposure to MeHg also induced S-guanylation and activation of H-Ras followed by injury to cerebellar granule neurons. The electrophile-induced activation of redox signaling and the consequent cell damage were attenuated by pretreatment with a reactive persulfide species donor. In conclusion, exogenous electrophiles such as MeHg with strong electrophilicity impair the redox signaling regulatory mechanism, particularly of intracellular reactive persulfide species and therefore lead to cellular pathogenesis. Our results suggest that reactive persulfide species may be potential therapeutic targets for attenuating cell injury by electrophiles.

Protein polysulfidation-dependent persulfide dioxygenase activity of ethylmalonic encephalopathy protein 1.

Reactive persulfide species such as glutathione persulfide (GSSH) are highly abundant biomolecules. Persulfide dioxygenase (also called ethylmalonic encephalopathy protein 1, ETHE1) reportedly metabolizes GSSH to GSH with simultaneous oxygen consumption. How ETHE1 activity is regulated is still unclear, however. In this study, we describe the possible role of protein polysulfidation in the catalytic activity of ETHE1. We first found that ETHE1 catalyzed the persulfide dioxygenase reaction mostly for glutathione polysulfides, GS-(S)n-H, as well as for GSSH, but not for other endogenous persulfides such as cysteine and homocysteine persulfides/polysulfides. We then developed a novel method to detect protein polysulfidation and named it the polyethylene glycol-conjugated maleimide-labeling gel shift assay (PMSA). PMSA analysis indicated that most cysteine residues in ETHE1 were polysulfidated. Site-directed mutagenesis of cysteine residues in ETHE1 combined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for polysulfidation determination surprisingly indicated that the Cys247 residue was important for polysulfidation of other Cys residues and that the C247S mutant possessed no persulfide dioxygenase activity. These results suggested that ETHE1 is a major enzyme regulating endogenous GSSH/GS-(S)n-H and that its activity is controlled by polysulfidation of the Cys247 residue.

Redox Signaling Regulated by Cysteine Persulfide and Protein Polysulfidation.

For decades, reactive persulfide species including cysteine persulfide (CysSSH) have been known to exist endogenously in organisms. However, the physiological significance of endogenous persulfides remains poorly understood. That cystathionine ß-synthase and cystathionine γ-lyase produced CysSSH from cystine was recently demonstrated. An endogenous sulfur transfer system involving CysSSH evidently generates glutathione persulfide (GSSH) that exists at concentrations greater than 100 µM in vivo. Because reactive persulfide species such as CysSSH and GSSH have higher nucleophilicity than parental cysteine (Cys) and glutathione do, these reactive species exhibit strong scavenging activities against oxidants, e.g., hydrogen peroxide, and electrophiles, which contributes to redox signaling regulation. Also, several papers indicated that various proteins and enzymes have Cys polysulfides including CysSSH at their specific Cys residues, which is called protein polysulfidation. Apart from the redox signaling regulatory mechanism, another plausible function of protein polysulfidation is providing protection for protein thiol residues against irreversible chemical modification caused by oxidants and electrophiles. Elucidation of the redox signaling regulatory mechanism of reactive persulfide species including small thiol molecules and thiol-containing proteins should lead to the development of new therapeutic strategies and drug discoveries for oxidative and electrophilic stress-related diseases.