Dietary calcium to phosphorus ratio affects postprandial phosphorus concentrations in feline plasma.

The impact of dietary phosphorus on chronic renal disease in cats, humans and other species is receiving increasing attention. As Ca and P metabolism are linked, the ratio of Ca:P is an important factor for consideration when formulating diets for cats and other animals. Here, we describe a fully randomised crossover study including twenty-four healthy, neutered adult cats, investigating postprandial responses in plasma P, ionised Ca and parathyroid hormone (PTH) following one meal (50 % of individual metabolic energy requirement) of each of six experimental diets. Diets were formulated to provide P at either 0·75 or 1·5 g/1000 kcal (4184 kJ) from the soluble phosphorus salt sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP, Na5P3O10), variable levels of organic Ca and P sources, and an intended total Ca:P of about 1·0, 1·5 or 2·0. For each experimental diet, baseline fasted blood samples were collected prior to the meal, and serial blood samples collected hourly for 6 h thereafter. For all diets, a significant increase from baseline was observed at 120 min in plasma PTH (P < 0·001). The diet containing the highest STPP inclusion level and lowest Ca:P induced the highest peaks in postprandial plasma P and PTH levels (1·8 mmol/l and 27·2 pg/ml, respectively), and the longest duration of concentrations raised above baseline were observed at 3 h for P and 6 h for PTH. Data indicate that Ca:P modulates postprandial plasma P and PTH. Therefore, when formulating diets containing soluble P salts for cats, increasing the Ca:P ratio should be considered.

Responses in randomised groups of healthy, adult Labrador retrievers fed grain-free diets with high legume inclusion for 30 days display commonalities with dogs with suspected dilated cardiomyopathy.

Early responses in healthy adult dogs fed grain-free diets with high inclusion of split peas (20%) and lentils (40%) that may lead to canine diet-induced dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) were investigated. To help understand the clinical relevance of the findings, a survey of electronic health records (EHR) was conducted of dogs with and without suspected DCM for comparison. Control and Test diets were fed to Labrador retriever dogs for 30 days (n = 5 and 6, respectively). Blood and urine samples collected at baseline and days 3, 14 and 28/30 were analyzed for hematology, clinical biochemistry and taurine concentrations. The EHRs of dogs at Banfield® Pet Hospitals in the 2-year period 2018-2019 were surveyed, revealing 420 dogs diagnosed with DCM, which were compared with 420 breed, gender and age-matched healthy control dogs. Compared to baseline values, feeding the Test diet for 28 days caused progressive, significant (p < 0.001) decreases in red blood cell counts (RBC), hematocrit and total hemoglobin by 7.7, 8.3 and 6.3%, respectively, and a 41.8% increase in plasma inorganic phosphate. Commonalities in these parameters were observed in clinical DCM cases. Regarding taurine status, Test dogs transiently increased whole-blood (23.4%) and plasma (47.7%) concentrations on day 14, while taurine:creatinine ratio in fresh urine and taurine in pooled urine were reduced by 77 and 78%, respectively, on day 28/30. Thus grain-free, legume-rich Test diets caused reduced RBC and hyperphosphatemia, findings also indicated in dogs with suspected DCM. Changes in taurine metabolism were indicated. The data will aid in generating hypotheses for future studies.

Towards establishing no observed adverse effect levels (NOAEL) for different sources of dietary phosphorus in feline adult diets: results from a 7-month feeding study.

High dietary phosphorus (P), particularly soluble salts, may contribute to chronic kidney disease development in cats. The aim of the present study was to assess the safety of P supplied at 1 g/1000 kcal (4184kJ) from a highly soluble P salt in P-rich dry format feline diets. Seventy-five healthy adult cats (n 25/group) were fed either a low P control (1·4 g/1000 kcal [4184kJ]; Ca:P ratio 0·97) or one of two test diets with 4 g/1000 kcal (4184 kJ); Ca:P 1·04 or 5 g/1000 kcal (4184kJ); Ca:P 1·27, both incorporating 1 g/1000 kcal (4184 kJ) sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) - for a period of 30 weeks in a randomised parallel-group study. Health markers in blood and urine, glomerular filtration rate, renal ultrasound and bone density were assessed at baseline and at regular time points. At the end of the test period, responses following transition to a commercial diet (total P - 2·34 g/1000 kcal [4184kJ], Ca:P 1·3) for a 4-week washout period were also assessed. No adverse effects on general, kidney or bone (skeletal) function and health were observed. P and Ca balance, some serum biochemistry parameters and regulatory hormones were increased in cats fed test diets from week 2 onwards (P ≤ 0·05). Data from the washout period suggest that increased serum creatinine and urea values observed in the two test diet groups were influenced by dietary differences during the test period, and not indicative of changes in renal function. The present data suggest no observed adverse effect level for feline diets containing 1 g P/1000 kcal (4184 kJ) from STPP and total P level of up to 5 g/1000 kcal (4184 kJ) when fed for 30 weeks.

Alternative Protein Sources in the Diet Modulate Microbiota and Functionality in the Distal Intestine of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar).

The present study aimed to investigate whether alternative dietary protein sources modulate the microbial communities in the distal intestine (DI) of Atlantic salmon, and whether alterations in microbiota profiles are reflected in modifications in host intestinal function and health status. A 48-day feeding trial was conducted, in which groups of fish received one of five diets: a reference diet in which fishmeal (diet FM) was the only protein source and four experimental diets with commercially relevant compositions containing alternative ingredients as partial replacements of fishmeal, i.e., poultry meal (diet PM), a mix of soybean meal and wheat gluten (diet SBMWG), a mix of soy protein concentrate and poultry meal (diet SPCPM), and guar meal and wheat gluten (diet GMWG). Samples were taken of DI digesta and mucosa for microbial profiling using high-throughput sequencing and from DI whole tissue for immunohistochemistry and expression profiling of marker genes for gut health. Regardless of diet, there were significant differences between the microbial populations in the digesta and the mucosa in the salmon DI. Microbial richness was higher in the digesta than the mucosa. The digesta-associated bacterial communities were more affected by the diet than the mucosa-associated microbiota. Interestingly, both legume-based diets (SBMWG and GMWG) presented high relative abundance of lactic acid bacteria in addition to alteration in the expression of a salmon gene related to cell proliferation (pcna). It was, however, not possible to ascertain the cause-effect relationship between changes in bacterial communities and the host's intestinal responses to the diets.IMPORTANCE The intestine of cultivated Atlantic salmon shows symptoms of compromised function, which are most likely caused by imbalances related to the use of new feed ingredients. Intestinal microbiota profiling may become in the future a valuable endpoint measurement in order to assess fish intestinal health status and effects of diet. The present study aimed to gain information about whether alternative dietary protein sources modulate the microbial communities in the Atlantic salmon intestine and whether alterations in microbiota profiles are reflected in alterations in host intestinal function and health status. We demonstrate here that there are substantial differences between the intestinal digesta and mucosa in the presence and abundance of bacteria. The digesta-associated microbiota showed clear dependence on the diet composition, whereas mucosa-associated microbiota appeared to be less affected by diet composition. Most important, the study identified bacterial groups associated with diet-induced gut dysfunction that may be utilized as microbial markers of gut health status in fish.

A diet change from dry food to beef induces reversible changes on the faecal microbiota in healthy, adult client-owned dogs.

BACKGROUND: Diet has a major influence on the composition of the gut microbiota, whose importance for gut health and overall well-being is increasingly recognized. Knowledge is limited regarding health implications, including effects on the faecal microbiota, of feeding a diet with high content of red meat to dogs, despite some owners' apparent preference to do so. The aim of this study was to evaluate how a diet change from commercial dry food to one with a high content of boiled minced beef and vice versa influenced the faecal microbiota, and short chain fatty acid profile in healthy, adult, client-owned dogs. RESULTS: The diet change influenced the faecal microbiota composition and diversity (Shannon diversity index). The most abundant OTUs in samples of dogs fed the dry food and high minced beef were affiliated with the species Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Clostridia hiranonis respectively. The high minced beef diet apparently also influenced the short chain fatty acid profile, with increased isovaleric acid, as well as an increase in faecal pH. These effects were reversed when the commercial dry food was reintroduced in weeks 6 and 7. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this study can aid in the understanding of how diet changes influence the faecal microbiota and metabolite content on a short-term basis. Long-term studies are required to investigate potential implications for canine gut and general health.

Bile enhances glucose uptake, reduces permeability, and modulates effects of lectins, trypsin inhibitors and saponins on intestinal tissue.

Antinutritional factors (ANFs) can disrupt digestive and other intestinal functions. ANFs in soybean meal (SBM) are implicated in proliferative and inflammatory responses in the intestine of various (functionally) monogastric animals, including Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). The goal of the current study was to investigate the effect of ex vivo exposure of mid and distal intestinal tissue of salmon to soybean saponins (SAP), lectin (LEC) and Kunitz' trypsin inhibitor (KTI), singly and in combination, on epithelial function, as assessed by measuring in vitro glucose uptake pathways along a glucose concentration gradient. As solubilization of SAP in the calcium-containing Ringer's solution was problematic but resolved with the addition of a physiological concentration of bile collected from the gall bladder of salmon, an evaluation of bile effects became an added element. Results indicated that bile increased baseline glucose absorption and possibly transport, and also had a protective effect on the epithelial barrier, at least partially due to taurocholate. Compared to controls, tissues exposed to LEC+bile, KTI+bile and LEC+KTI+bile exhibited increased glucose uptake at the higher glucose concentrations, apparently due to markedly increased tissue permeability. Addition of SAP, however, attenuated the response, possibly by binding bile components. SAP+bile, also in combination with LEC and/or KTI, as well as LEC, KTI and LEC+KTI without bile often reduced transcellular glucose uptake pathways, while maintaining low tissue permeability. SAP+LEC+KTI+bile, LEC and KTI caused the most marked reductions. The distal intestine was more affected, reflecting the restriction of in vivo SBM-induced inflammatory changes to this region.

Evaluation of the effect of commercially available plant and animal protein sources in diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.): digestive and metabolic investigations.

The present study investigated the effect of various alternative diet ingredients partially replacing fishmeal (FM) on digestive and metabolic parameters in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) post-smolts (initial body mass 305 ± 69 g) following 12 weeks of feeding. Experimental diets containing 20 % extracted sunflower (ESF), pea protein concentrate (PPC), soy protein concentrate (SPC), feather meal (FeM) and poultry by-product (PBY) were compared to a reference diet containing FM as the main protein source. For the different intestinal compartments trypsin, lipase, bile salts, dry matter and chyme-associated leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) were measured from the content and LAP was measured in the tissue. Selected metabolites were measured in plasma samples. In general, use of plant proteins resulted in low C-LAP activity, low plasma cholesterol and high plasma magnesium. The plasma levels of cholesterol and Mg reflecting were most likely reflections of the composition of the diet, while the LAP activity in chyme may indicate lower epithelial cell turnover. Other responses varied depending on the plant protein source. Results from the animal protein substitution also varied both between diets and compartments; however, both materials increased lipase activity in DI. FeM resulted in a significant increase in both total and specific LAP activities suggesting an attempt to increase the digestive capacity in response to low digestibility of the diet while PBY showed very little difference from the FM-fed control fish. The present trial indicates that 20 % PPC, SPC and PBY can partially replace FM in diets for Atlantic salmon. The qualities of ESF and FeM used in this trial show little promise as FM replacement at 20 % inclusion level.

Intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and migration in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L.: effects of temperature and inflammation.

A 28-day feeding trial was carried out to characterise intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) turnover in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) post-smolts in seawater. Four groups of fish raised at two temperatures of 8°C or 12°C and fed two different diets were investigated. The diets included a reference maize gluten and fishmeal-based diet (FM) and an experimental enteropathy-causing diet containing 20% extracted soybean meal (SBM). IEC proliferation and migration were investigated by labelling cells with the in vivo proliferation marker 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU). Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) labelling was used as a control for identifying proliferating cells. Samples of the proximal (PI), mid (MI) and distal (DI) intestinal regions were collected at five time points (3 h-28 days) over the experimental period. Histologically, FM-fed fish had normal mucosa, whereas the SBM-fed fish developed DI enteropathy. Major zones of cell proliferation were observed in the mucosal fold bases for all intestinal regions. Over time, BrdU-labelled cells migrated up mucosal folds to the tips before being lost. Migration rates were dependent on intestinal region, temperature and diet. Highest migration rates were observed in the PI followed by the MI and DI for FM-fed fish. Diet and temperature barely affected migration in the PI and MI. Migration in the DI was most sensitive to diet and temperature, with both SBM and the higher water temperature increasing proliferation and migration rates. The slow IEC turnover in the DI might help to explain the sensitivity of this region to dietary SBM-induced enteropathy.

Transcriptional regulation of cholesterol and bile acid metabolism after dietary soyabean meal treatment in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).

Inclusion of plant protein sources such as soyabean meal (SBM) in aquafeeds is associated with decreased lipid digestibility, reduced bile acid levels and hypocholesterolaemia. The mechanism for these metabolic abnormalities is unknown. The present study aimed at gaining further insight into how cholesterol and bile acid metabolism is modulated by SBM feeding by quantifying a number of mRNA species corresponding to key proteins involved in cholesterol and bile acid metabolism using quantitative real-time PCR. A 21 d feeding trial with sequential sampling at ten time points following initiation of 20% SBM exposure was conducted on Atlantic salmon. A histological evaluation confirmed distal intestinal enteritis after 5 d of dietary exposure to the SBM, whereas diminished glycogen/lipid deposition was the only relevant finding observed in the liver. SBM inclusion resulted in reduced body pools of cholesterol and bile acids. Hepatic gene expression profiles revealed up-regulation of genes encoding rate-limiting enzymes in cholesterol (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase; HMGCR) and bile acid (cytochrome P4507A1 (CYP7A1)) biosynthesis, as well as up-regulation of their associated transcription factors (sterol regulatory element binding proteins 1 and 2, liver X receptor, farnesoid X receptor and PPAR isoforms). Hepatic gene expressions of cholesterol (ATP binding cassette G5 (ABCG5)) and bile acid (ATP binding cassette B11 (ABCB11)) transporters were, by and large, not influenced by the SBM, but distal intestinal expression patterns of ABCG5 and apical Na-dependent bile acid transporter indicated impaired cholesterol and bile acid reabsorption. In conclusion, hepatic gene expression profiles indicated that the capacity for cholesterol and bile acid synthesis was up-regulated, whereas the indicated impaired cholesterol and bile acid reabsorption probably occurred as a direct result of distal intestinal inflammation.

Effects of oral Bt-maize (MON810) exposure on growth and health parameters in normal and sensitised Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L.

Responses to GM maize Bt-maize, MON810) expressing Cry1Ab protein from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) in diets for both normal and immune-sensitised (with soyabean meal (SBM)-induced enteropathy) post-smolt Atlantic salmon were investigated following 33 and 97 d of exposure. Triplicate tanks of salmon were fed one of four diets, all containing 20% whole-kernel meal maize, either Bt-maize or its near-isogenic maternal line, without or with 15% extracted SBM inclusion. The fish fed Bt-maize utilised the feed less efficiently, as revealed by lower protein and mineral digestibilities and lower lipid and energy retention efficiencies. Higher intestinal weight, as well as increased interferon-γ and decreased sodium-glucose co-transporter mRNA expression, and a transient increase in T-helper cell presence, as measured by cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) protein in the distal intestine (DI), may partly explain the lower nutrient digestibilities and retentions. The Bt-maize seemed to potentiate oxidative cellular stress in the DI of immune-sensitised fish, as indicated by increases in superoxide dismutase and heat shock protein 70 mRNA expression. The data suggest that Cry1Ab protein or other antigens in Bt-maize have local immunogenic effects in salmon DI. No systemic immune responses could be detected, as indicated by haematology, differential leucocyte counts, plasma clinical chemistry, as well as absence of Cry1Ab-specific antibodies and Cry1Ab protein in plasma. The responses to Bt-maize observed in the present study differed from results from earlier studies in salmon and other animals fed the same event Bt-maize. Longer-term experiments and more in-depth studies on intestinal physiology and immune responses are needed to evaluate health implications.

Cross-generational feeding of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis)-maize to zebrafish (Danio rerio) showed no adverse effects on the parental or offspring generations.

In the present study, zebrafish (Danio rerio) were fed casein/gelatin-based diets containing either 19% Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis)-maize or its parental non-Bt (nBt)-maize control for two generations (F0: sixty fish; F1: forty-two to seventy fish per treatment). The study focused on growth and reproductive performance, liver CuZn superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme activity, gene transcript levels targeting important cellular pathways in the liver and mid-intestine, histomorphological evaluation of the intestine, differential leucocyte counts, offspring larva swimming activity and global DNA methylation in offspring embryos. No significant effects were observed in the parental generation. The offspring were either fed the same diets as those fed to their parents (Bt-Bt or nBt-nBt) or switched from the Bt diet to the nBt diet (Bt-nBt). The Bt-Bt offspring exhibited a significantly higher body mass increase, specific growth rate and feed utilisation than fish fed the nBt-nBt diet and/or fish fed the Bt-nBt diet. Liver and mid-intestinal gene transcript levels of CuZn SOD were significantly higher in fish fed the nBt-nBt diet than in those fed the Bt-Bt diet. Liver gene transcript levels of caspase 6 were significantly lower for the nBt-nBt group than for the Bt-Bt group. Overall, enhanced growth performance was observed in fish fed the Bt diet for two generations than in those fed the nBt diet for one and two generations. Effects observed on gene biomarkers for oxidative stress and the cell cycle (apoptosis) may be related to the contamination of nBt-maize with fumonisin B1 and aflatoxin B1. In conclusion, it is suggested that Bt-maize is as safe and nutritious as its nBt control when fed to zebrafish for two generations.

Early response of gene expression in the distal intestine of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) during the development of soybean meal induced enteritis.

Plant products in general and soybeans in particular can challenge the function and health of the intestinal tract. Salmonids develop an intestinal inflammation when fed diets containing soybean meal (SBM) and certain other legume ingredients. In the present study a 44K oligonucleotide salmonid microarray, qPCR and histology were used to investigate early response mechanisms in the distal intestine of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) during the first week of oral exposure to a diet containing 20% extracted SBM. The distal intestine transcriptome was profiled on days 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 and compared to a control group fed fishmeal as the sole protein source. Histological evaluation of the distal intestine revealed the first signs of inflammation on day 5. The most prominent gene expression changes were seen on days 3 and 5. Up-regulation in immune-related genes was observed during the first 5 days, including GTPase IMAP family members, NF-kB-related genes and regulators of T cell and B cell function. Many functional genes involved in lipid metabolism, proteolysis, transport, metabolism and detoxification were initially up-regulated on days 1-3, possibly as an attempt by the tissue to compensate for the initiating immune response. Cell repair and extracellular matrix remodeling genes were up-regulated (heparanase, collagenase) on days 3 and 5. Down regulation of genes related to endocytosis, exocytosis, detoxification, transporters and metabolic processes from day 5 indicated initiation of dysfunction of digestive and metabolic functions that may occur as a result of inflammation or as a response to the introduction of soybean meal in the diet. This is the first study conducting transcriptomic profiling to characterize early responses during the development of SBMIE. Switching Atlantic salmon from a fishmeal to a 20% SBM diet resulted in rapid changes to the intestinal transcriptome, indicating an immune reaction with subsequent impaired epithelial barrier function and other vital intestinal functions.

Intestinal fatty acid binding protein (fabp2) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): Localization and alteration of expression during development of diet induced enteritis.

In the present study full-length cDNAs corresponding to three isoforms of intestinal fatty acid binding protein (fabp2) in Atlantic salmon were cloned and characterized. Gene expression of fabp2 was observed in all tissues investigated, although differences were observed between isoforms. The highest fabp2a1, fabp2a2, and fabp2b expression was in the intestine. A 15kDa protein, corresponding to putative Fabp2 protein, was identified by immunoblotting using anti-human Fabp2 antibody. Immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry confirmed that Fabp2 protein was present in most Atlantic salmon tissues. Similar to gene expression, intestinal tissues had the highest Fabp2 protein levels, decreasing gradually from proximal to distal intestine. During development of distal intestinal inflammation caused by dietary soybean meal from 0 to 21days, Fabp2 decreased significantly on both transcriptional and protein levels. The reduction in Fabp2 was preceded by a down regulation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor (ppar) alpha and gamma, fabp2's presumed regulatory proteins, and followed by a progressive increase in proliferating cell nuclear antigen (Pcna) staining. Results illustrate that the early decline of distal intestinal fabp2 was likely caused by a down regulation of their regulatory proteins, but at later time points reduced Fabp2 may largely be due to a less mature enterocyte population resulting from rapid cell turnover.

Healthy cats tolerate long-term daily feeding of Cannabidiol.

Cannabidiol (CBD)-containing products are widely commercially available for companion animals, mirroring popularity in human use. Although data on the safety and efficacy of long-term oral supplementation are increasing in dogs, evidence remains lacking in cats. The purpose of these studies was to address gaps in the knowledge around the long-term suitability and tolerance of a tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-free CBD distillate in clinically healthy cats. The studies were randomized, blinded, and placebo-controlled. The first study supplemented cats with either a placebo oil (n = 10) or with 4 mg/kg body weight (BW) CBD in placebo oil (n = 9) daily, with a meal, for 4 weeks. The concentration of CBD in plasma was measured over 4 h at d0 (first dose) and again at d14 (after 2 weeks of daily dosing). The second study supplemented cats daily with either placebo oil (n = 10) or 4 mg/kg BW CBD in placebo oil (n = 10) for a period of 26 weeks. A comprehensive suite of physiological health measures was performed throughout the study at baseline (week 0) and after 4, 10, 18, and 26 weeks of feeding, followed by a 4-week washout sample (week 30). Postprandial plasma CBD time course data, at both d0 and d14, showed a peak plasma CBD concentration at 2 h after the dose. This peak was 251 (95% CI: 108.7, 393.4) and 431 (95% CI, 288.7, 573.4) ng/mL CBD at d0 and d14, respectively, and the area under the curve concentration was higher by 91.5 (95% CI, 33.1, 149.9) ng-h/mL after 2 weeks of supplementation (p = 0.002). While in the first study the CBD group displayed increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT; 68.7 (95% CI, 43.23, 109.2) U/L) at week 4 compared to the placebo control group [1.44-fold increase (95% CI, 0.813, 2.54)], statistical equivalence (at 2-fold limits) was found for ALT across the duration of the second, long-term study. All other biochemistry and hematology data showed no clinically significant differences between supplement groups. Data presented here suggest that a THC-free, CBD distillate fed at a dose of 4 mg/kg BW was absorbed into plasma and well tolerated by healthy cats when supplemented over a period of 26 weeks.

Transcriptional regulation of IL-17A and other inflammatory markers during the development of soybean meal-induced enteropathy in the distal intestine of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).

Progression of soybean meal (SBM)-induced enteropathy in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) distal intestine (DI) was studied to investigate pathophysiological mechanisms and immune responses. Seawater-adapted salmon were fed an extracted SBM-containing diet (200 g kg(-1)) from day 1-21 and compared with fish fed a fishmeal-based diet (day 0). Histological evaluation of the DI revealed signs of inflammation from day 5, which progressively increased in severity and affected more fish with increasing SBM exposure time. The expression profiles of 16 genes were analyzed by quantitative PCR. The pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin 17A (IL-17A), IL-1ß, interferon α (IFNα) and IFNγ, as well as IL-17A receptor, T-cell receptor γ (TCRγ), cluster of differentiation 4α (CD4α), CD8ß, transforming growth factor ß (TGFß), trypsin, protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) and myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88) were significantly up-regulated during early and/or late inflammation stages, whereas interferon-γ-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT) was downregulated. Up-regulation of TCRγ from day seven suggests proliferation of intraepithelial γδ T cells. IL-17A, up-regulated by 218-fold during early inflammation, indicates involvement of T helper 17 cells in the pathogenesis of the SBM-induced inflammatory response.

Long-term daily feeding of cannabidiol is well-tolerated by healthy dogs.

Cannabidiol (CBD) containing dog food and treats are widely commercially available, mirroring the growing popularity of CBD as a supplement for humans. Despite this, experimental evidence of the safety and efficacy of long-term oral exposure in dogs is lacking. The purpose of this study was to address the gap in knowledge around the longer-term suitability and tolerance of a broad-spectrum CBD (THC-free) distillate in clinically healthy dogs. The study was a randomized, placebo-controlled, and blinded study where one group of twenty dogs received daily CBD capsules at a dose of 4 mg/kg of body weight (BW) for a period of 6 months. The control group of twenty dogs received placebo capsules. A comprehensive suite of physiological health measures was performed throughout the study at baseline, and after 2, 4, 10, 18, and 26 weeks of exposure, followed by 4 weeks of washout. CBD concentrations were measured at the same cadence in plasma, feces and urine. Health measures included biochemistry, hematology, urinalysis, in addition to fortnightly veterinary examinations, twice daily well-being observations, and a daily quality-of-life survey. Biochemistry and hematology showed no clinically significant alterations apart from a transient elevation in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) in just over half of the dogs receiving CBD. This elevation was observed in the absence of concurrent elevations of other liver parameters, and without any adverse effects on health and wellbeing. Furthermore, bone alkaline phosphatase (BALP) was simultaneously elevated with a significant, strong (r > 0.9) positive correlation between the two measures, suggesting that the elevation of total ALP was at least partly due to the bone-derived isoform. This study provides evidence that a once-daily oral dose of 4 mg CBD/kg BW is well tolerated in clinically healthy dogs for a duration of 6-months.

Medium-chain and long-chain fatty acids have different postabsorptive fates in Atlantic salmon.

An increasingly larger proportion of the oils used in diets for farmed fish are plant derived and rapeseed oil is most commonly used. Despite high dietary lipid levels and a marked change in lipid composition, the transport and metabolic fate of absorbed fatty acids is not fully understood in teleost fish. The main purpose of this study was to trace the postabsorptive metabolic fate of 2 fatty acids of different chain length: oleic acid [(3)H-18:1(n-9)], constituting 70% of fatty acids in rapeseed oil, and the medium-chain decanoic acid [(14)C-10:0], which does not require carrier molecules for membrane passage. The fatty acids and their metabolites were traced in portal and peripheral blood, liver, heart, skeletal muscle, and visceral adipose tissue at time intervals from 3 to 48 h after feeding. The portal vein was the primary transport route for both 10:0 and 18:1(n-9) from the intestine to the liver the first 6 h after feed intake. From 12 to 48 h, the peripheral route became increasingly more important. The study also indicates a possible direct transport route of fatty acids from the intestine to the surrounding viscera. Our data demonstrate that whereas 18:1(n-9) is primarily deposited as TG in skeletal muscle and visceral adipose tissue, 10:0 is used by the heart and skeletal muscle as a source for rapid energy production.

Energy Requirements for Growth in the Norfolk Terrier.

An appropriate energy intake for healthy growth can reduce the risk of obesity and co-morbidities, such as orthopaedic diseases. The 2006 National Research Council (NRC) universal equation calculates the energy requirement of growing dogs based on predicted adult body weight, but evidence suggests a revision may be required. This study investigates the energy requirements of seventeen Norfolk terrier puppies over their first year (10 to 52 weeks). Puppies were individually fed complete and balanced diets in amounts to maintain an optimal body condition score (BCS), recording intake daily and body weight and BCS weekly. To monitor health a veterinary examination, haematology and plasma biochemistry and serum measures of bone turnover were undertaken every 12 weeks. Skeletal development was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (26 and 52 weeks). Puppies were clinically healthy with normal skeletal development and healthy growth throughout. The energy intake to achieve this was significantly lower than that predicted by the NRC (2006) equation at all time points, with largest mean difference of 285 kJ/kg0.75 per day at 10 weeks. If fed according to the NRC 2006 equation, dogs would have been in positive energy balance, possibly leading to obesity. These data support a revision to the NRC (2006) equation.

No Observed Adverse Effects on Health Were Detected in Adult Beagle Dogs When Fed a High-Calcium Diet for 40 Weeks.

The implications of long-term high calcium (Ca) intake are well documented in growing dogs and in adult dogs of large breed size, however, the consequences on other breeds and breed sizes are yet to be determined. Eighteen neutered adult beagles, nine males and nine females aged 1.4-4.4 years, were randomized to control or test diets providing in g∙4184 kJ-1 (1000 kcal-1): 1.44 and 7.19 total Ca balanced with 1.05 and 4.25 total phosphorus, respectively, for 40 weeks. Health parameters, ultrasound scans, radiographs, glomerular filtration rate, and mineral balance were measured at eight-week intervals. All dogs remained healthy with no measured evidence of orthopedic, urinary, or renal disease. The test diet resulted in a 5.2 fold increase in fecal Ca excretion. Apparent Ca digestibility (%) and Ca balance (g/d) did not significantly (p > 0.05) change from baseline in the test diet group, although dogs displayed a positive Ca balance (maximum at week 8, 1.11 g/d with 95% CI (0.41, 1.80)) before a neutral Ca balance was restored at week 32. Despite an initial positive Ca balance, we can conclude that no measurable adverse health effects were observed as a result of the test diet fed in this study in beagles over a period of 40 weeks.