Underlying and proximate drivers of biodiversity changes in Mesoamerican biosphere reserves.

Protected areas are of paramount relevance to conserving wildlife and ecosystem contributions to people. Yet, their conservation success is increasingly threatened by human activities including habitat loss, climate change, pollution, and species overexploitation. Thus, understanding the underlying and proximate drivers of anthropogenic threats is urgently needed to improve protected areas' effectiveness, especially in the biodiversity-rich tropics. We addressed this issue by analyzing expert-provided data on long-term biodiversity change (last three decades) over 14 biosphere reserves from the Mesoamerican Biodiversity Hotspot. Using multivariate analyses and structural equation modeling, we tested the influence of major socioeconomic drivers (demographic, economic, and political factors), spatial indicators of human activities (agriculture expansion and road extension), and forest landscape modifications (forest loss and isolation) as drivers of biodiversity change. We uncovered a significant proliferation of disturbance-tolerant guilds and the loss or decline of disturbance-sensitive guilds within reserves causing a "winner and loser" species replacement over time. Guild change was directly related to forest spatial changes promoted by the expansion of agriculture and roads within reserves. High human population density and low nonfarming occupation were identified as the main underlying drivers of biodiversity change. Our findings suggest that to mitigate anthropogenic threats to biodiversity within biosphere reserves, fostering human population well-being via sustainable, nonfarming livelihood opportunities around reserves is imperative.

Weeds Harbor Fusarium Species that Cause Malformation Disease of Economically Important Trees in Western Mexico.

Mango malformation disease (MMD) caused by Fusarium spp. is an important limiting factor in most production areas worldwide. Fusarium mexicanum and F. pseudocircinatum have been reported as causing MMD in Mexico. These two pathogens also cause a similar disease in Swietenia macrophylla (big-leaf mahogany malformation disease) in central western Mexico, and F. pseudocircinatum was recently reported as causing malformation disease in Tabebuia rosea (rosy trumpet) in the same region. These studies suggest that additional plant species, including weeds, might be hosts of these pathogens. The role that weed hosts might have in the disease cycle is unknown. The objectives of this work were to recover Fusarium isolates from understory vegetation in mango orchards with MMD, identify the Fusarium isolates through DNA sequence data, and determine whether F. mexicanum is capable of inducing disease in the weedy legume Senna uniflora (oneleaf senna). Additional objectives in this work were to compare Fusarium isolates recovered from weeds and mango trees in the same orchards by characterizing their phylogenetic relationships, assessing in vitro production of mycotoxins, and identifying their mating type idiomorph. A total of 59 Fusarium isolates from five species complexes were recovered from apical and lateral buds from four weed species. Two of the species within the F. fujikuroi species complex are known to cause MMD in Mexico. Trichothecene production was detected in five isolates, including F. sulawense and F. irregulare in the F. incarnatum-equiseti species complex and F. boothii in the F. sambucinum species complex. Both mating types were present among mango and weed isolates. This is the first report of herbaceous hosts harboring Fusarium species that cause mango malformation in Mexico. The information provided should prove valuable for further study of the epidemiological role of weeds in MMD and help manage the disease.

Germination success of large-seeded plant species ingested by howler monkeys in tropical rain forest fragments.

PREMISE: Primates are important seed dispersers, especially for large-seeded (>1 cm long) tropical species in continuous and fragmented rainforests. METHODS: In three forest fragments within the Montes Azules Biosphere Reserve, southern Mexico, we investigated the effect of seed passage through the gut of howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) on the germination rate and maximum germination (%) of native, large-seeded species. One group of howler monkeys, per fragment, was followed and fresh feces collected. Large seeds were removed to compare their germination success with non-ingested seeds of the same species collected underneath parent plants. RESULTS: Feces contained large seeds from seven tree species (Ampelocera hottlei, Castilla elastica, Dialium guianense, Garcinia intermedia, Pourouma bicolor, Spondias mombin, Trophis racemosa) and one liana species (Abuta panamensis). Except for G. intermedia, ingested seeds germinated significantly faster than non-ingested seeds, which had negligible germination. Ingested seeds of D. guianense, P. bicolor, S. mombin, T. racemosa, and A. panamensis had significantly greater germination, while G. intermedia had significantly lower germination and seed ingestion had no apparent effect for A. hottlei and C. elastica. CONCLUSIONS: In general, seed ingestion by howler monkeys confers faster germination compared with non-ingested seeds. Faster germination reduces predation probabilities and increases seedling establishment in forest fragments. Primate dispersal services contribute to germination heterogeneity within plant populations of old-growth forest species and to their persistence in forest fragments.

Malformation Disease in Tabebuia rosea (Rosy Trumpet) Caused by Fusarium pseudocircinatum in Mexico.

Tabebuia rosea (rosy trumpet) is an economically important neotropical tree in Mexico that is highly valued for the quality of its wood, which is used for furniture, crafts, and packing, and for its use as an ornamental and shade tree in parks and gardens. During surveys conducted in the lower Balsas River Basin region in the states of Guerrero and Michoacán, symptoms of floral malformation were detected in T. rosea trees. The main objectives of this study were to describe this new disease, to determine its causal agent, and to identify it using DNA sequence data. A second set of objectives was to analyze the phylogenetic relationship of the causal agent to Fusarium spp. associated with Swietenia macrophylla trees with malformation surveyed in the same region and to compare mycotoxin production and the mating type idiomorphs of fusaria recovered from T. rosea and S. macrophylla. Tabebuia rosea showed malformed inflorescences with multiple tightly curled shoots and shortened internodes. A total of 31 Fusarium isolates recovered from symptomatic T. rosea (n = 20) and S. macrophylla (n = 11) trees were identified by molecular analysis as Fusarium pseudocircinatum. Pathogenicity tests showed that isolates of F. pseudocircinatum recovered from T. rosea induced malformation in inoculated T. rosea seedlings. Eighteen F. pseudocircinatum isolates were tested for their ability to produce mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites. Moniliformin, fusaric acid, bikaverin, beauvericin, aurofusarin. and 8-O-methylbostrycoidin were produced by at least one strain of the 18 isolates tested. A multiplex PCR assay for mating type idiomorph revealed that 22 F. pseudocircinatum isolates were MAT1-1 and that 9 were MAT1-2. Here, we report a new disease of T. rosea in Mexico caused by F. pseudocircinatum.

Genetic diversity of Fusarium pseudocircinatum in the central western region of Mexico: the case of big-leaf mahogany malformation disease.

Fusarium pseudocircinatum is the main causal agent of big-leaf mahogany malformation disease (BLMMD) of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) in Mexico. Although, BLMMD is the most important disease for this high-value timber species, there is a lack of information on the genetic variation present in geographically diverse isolates of F. pseudocircinatum. The objective of this study was to determine the genetic diversity of populations of F. pseudocircinatum causing BLMMD in the central western region of Mexico. A total of 611 big-leaf mahogany trees were inspected at eight sites in four states (Colima, Guerrero, Jalisco and Michoacán); of these, 42.7% showed malformation symptoms similar to those of BLMMD. Of 374 Fusarium isolates that were recovered, 277 were identified as F. pseudocircinatum, 56 were F. mexicanum, and 41 were Fusarium spp. An ISSR analysis of the F. pseudocircinatum isolates generated 51 bands of which 38 were polymorphic (76.8%) with a mean of 17 bands per primer. A total of 87 multilocus genotypes (MLGs) were identified. Nei's genetic diversity analysis showed that the isolates had a high genetic diversity average (0.147), with values ranging from 0.070 to 0.365 depending of the geographical location. An analysis of molecular variance revealed that the variation within the populations was low (27.36%), while the variation within MLGs was significant (72.64%), indicating genetic flow. Overall, the genetic variability of F. pseudocircinatum populations was high and the MLGs from Colima (Colima) and Gabriel Zamora (Michoacán) were placed centrally, which possibly is evidence of ancestry and indicates its dispersion routes in the central western region of Mexico.

Genetic diversity of Fusarium mexicanum, causal agent of mango and big-leaf mahogany malformation in Mexico.

In Mexico, Fusarium mexicanum has been reported causing mango malformation disease and big-leaf mahogany malformation disease. Our objective was to determine the genetic diversity of F. mexicanum isolates obtained from malformed big-leaf mahogany and mango trees, using an internal simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis. A total of 61 isolates of F. mexicanum, 32 from mango and 29 from big-leaf mahogany, were initially genotyped using fourteen ISSR primers. Data from five primers that produced the highest number of polymorphic bands were selected for further analysis. The primers generated 49 polymorphic bands (85.96%) from a total of 57 fragments ranging in size from 250 to 2800 bp, with an average of 11.4 bands per primer. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that the variation within populations, isolates grouped by host and geographic origin, was significant (43%), followed by the variation between the big-leaf mahogany versus mango isolates (34%), while among populations the variation was the lowest (22%). The genetic fingerprints suggested that genetic variability of F. mexicanum populations are structured by the host of origin rather than the geographic region.

Averting biodiversity collapse in tropical forest protected areas.

The rapid disruption of tropical forests probably imperils global biodiversity more than any other contemporary phenomenon. With deforestation advancing quickly, protected areas are increasingly becoming final refuges for threatened species and natural ecosystem processes. However, many protected areas in the tropics are themselves vulnerable to human encroachment and other environmental stresses. As pressures mount, it is vital to know whether existing reserves can sustain their biodiversity. A critical constraint in addressing this question has been that data describing a broad array of biodiversity groups have been unavailable for a sufficiently large and representative sample of reserves. Here we present a uniquely comprehensive data set on changes over the past 20 to 30 years in 31 functional groups of species and 21 potential drivers of environmental change, for 60 protected areas stratified across the world's major tropical regions. Our analysis reveals great variation in reserve 'health': about half of all reserves have been effective or performed passably, but the rest are experiencing an erosion of biodiversity that is often alarmingly widespread taxonomically and functionally. Habitat disruption, hunting and forest-product exploitation were the strongest predictors of declining reserve health. Crucially, environmental changes immediately outside reserves seemed nearly as important as those inside in determining their ecological fate, with changes inside reserves strongly mirroring those occurring around them. These findings suggest that tropical protected areas are often intimately linked ecologically to their surrounding habitats, and that a failure to stem broad-scale loss and degradation of such habitats could sharply increase the likelihood of serious biodiversity declines.

The specificity of host-bat fly interaction networks across vegetation and seasonal variation.

Vegetation type and seasonality promote changes in the species composition and abundance of parasite hosts. However, it is poorly known how these variables affect host-parasite interaction networks. This information is important to understand the dynamics of parasite-host relationships according to biotic and abiotic changes. We compared the specialization of host-bat fly interaction networks, as well as bat fly and host species composition between upland dry forest and riparian forest and between dry and rainy seasons in a tropical dry forest in Jalisco, Mexico. Bat flies were surveyed by direct collection from bats. Our results showed that host-bat fly interaction networks were more specialized in upland dry forest compared to riparian forest. Bat fly species composition was different between the dry and rainy seasons, while host species composition was different between upland dry forest and riparian forest. The higher specialization in upland dry forest could be related to the differences in bat host species composition and their respective roosting habits. Variation in the composition of bat fly species between dry and rainy seasons coincides with the seasonal shifts in their species richness. Our study confirms the high specialization of host-bat fly interactions and shows the importance of biotic and abiotic factors to understand the dynamics of parasite-host interactions.

Interaction intimacy of pathogens and herbivores with their host plants influences the topological structure of ecological networks in different ways.

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Over the past two decades an interest in the role that plant-animal mutualistic networks play in the organization and dynamic of biodiversity has steadily risen. Despite the ecological, evolutionary, and economic importance of plant-herbivore and plant-pathogen antagonistic relationships, however, few studies have examined these interactions in an ecological network framework.• METHODS: We describe for the first time the topological structure of multitrophic networks involving congeneric tropical plant species of the genus Heliconia (Heliconiaceae, Zingiberales) and their herbivores and pathogens in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. We based our study on the available literature describing the organisms (e.g., insects, mites, fungi, and bacteria) that attack 24 different species, hybrids, and cultivated varieties of Heliconia.• KEY RESULTS: In general, pathogen- and herbivore-Heliconia networks differed in their topological structure (more modular vs. more nested, respectively): pathogen-Heliconia networks were more specialized and compartmentalized than herbivore-Heliconia networks. High modularity was likely due to the high intimacy that pathogens have with their host plants as compared with the more generalized feeding modes and behavior of herbivores. Some clusters clearly reflected the clustering of closely related cultivated varieties of Heliconia sharing the same pathogens.• CONCLUSIONS: From a commercial standpoint, different varieties of the same Heliconia species may be more susceptible to being attacked by the same species of pathogens. In summary, our study highlights the importance of interaction intimacy in structuring trophic relationships between plants and pathogens in the tropics.

Influence of matrix type on tree community assemblages along tropical dry forest edges.

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Anthropogenic habitat edges have strong negative consequences for the functioning of tropical ecosystems. However, edge effects on tropical dry forest tree communities have been barely documented.• METHODS: In Chamela, Mexico, we investigated the phylogenetic composition and structure of tree assemblages (≥5 cm dbh) along edges abutting different matrices: (1) disturbed vegetation with cattle, (2) pastures with cattle and, (3) pastures without cattle. Additionally, we sampled preserved forest interiors.• KEY RESULTS: All edge types exhibited similar tree density, basal area and diversity to interior forests, but differed in species composition. A nonmetric multidimensional scaling ordination showed that the presence of cattle influenced species composition more strongly than the vegetation structure of the matrix; tree assemblages abutting matrices with cattle had lower scores in the ordination. The phylogenetic composition of tree assemblages followed the same pattern. The principal plant families and genera were associated according to disturbance regimes as follows: pastures and disturbed vegetation (1) with cattle and (2) without cattle, and (3) pastures without cattle and interior forests. All habitats showed random phylogenetic structures, suggesting that tree communities are assembled mainly by stochastic processes. Long-lived species persisting after edge creation could have important implications in the phylogenetic structure of tree assemblages.• CONCLUSIONS: Edge creation exerts a stronger influence on TDF vegetation pathways than previously documented, leading to new ecological communities. Phylogenetic analysis may, however, be needed to detect such changes.

Seed source, seed traits, and frugivore habits: Implications for dispersal quality of two sympatric primates.

• Premise of the study: Frugivore selection of fruits and treatment of seeds together with seed deposition site are crucial for the population dynamics of vertebrate-dispersed plants. However, frugivore species may influence dispersal quality differently even when feeding on the same fruit species and, while animals disperse some seeds, others simply fall beneath the parent plant.• Methods: In southern Mexico, we investigated to see if within-species seed traits (i.e., length, width, weight, and volume) and germination success differed according to seed source. For five tropical tree species we obtained ingested seeds from two sources, howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) and spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) feces; and noningested seeds from two sources, the ground and tree crowns (with predispersed seeds used as control).• Key results: A principal components' analysis showed that traits of seeds ingested by howler monkeys differed from other sources while seeds ingested by spider monkeys were similar to noningested seeds. Howlers consumed on average the larger seeds in Ampelocera hottlei, Brosimum lactescens, and Dialium guianense. Both primate species consumed the smaller seeds in Spondias mombin, while no seed trait differences among seed sources were found in Spondias radlkoferi. For all five tree species, germination rate was greatest for seeds ingested by howler monkeys.• Conclusions: For the studied plant species, seed ingestion by howler monkeys confers higher dispersal quality than ingestion by spider monkeys or nondispersal. Dispersal services of both primate species, however, are not redundant and may contribute to germination heterogeneity within plant populations in tropical forests.

In Site Soil Seed-Banks: Size, Composition and Persistence across Tropical Successional Stages.

I investigated the size, composition and persistence of the seed-bank in primary forests, secondary forests and old-fields in southern Mexico. I also assessed the contribution of the seed-bank to regeneration relative to other propagule sources. In all habitats, I removed by hand all plants and litter and excluded the seed-rain. For one year, I counted the number of plant species (5-50 cm tall) emerged and grouped them into different growth-forms: trees, shrubs, palms, herbs, woody lianas, epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes. A total of 95 species emerged. The seed-bank size, composition and persistence showed strong variation among successional stages. Emergence was low for primary and secondary forests, but high for old-fields (19, 26, and 68 plants per m-2, respectively). Herbs were the most abundant in the seed-bank and palms the less. Time had a negative effect on seed-bank size in primary forests and old-fields; whereas for secondary forests size remained constant throughout the year. The number of emerged plants in different growth-forms changed significantly across time for all successional stages. Overall, the seed-bank provided a greater number of plants in old-fields relative to other propagule sources combined. The results showed that forest modification alters the input of propagules throughout the seed-bank for different plant growth-forms.

Linking Anthropogenic Landscape Perturbation to Herbivory and Pathogen Leaf Damage in Tropical Tree Communities.

Anthropogenic disturbance of tropical humid forests leads to habitat loss, biodiversity decline, landscape fragmentation, altered nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration, soil erosion, pest/pathogen outbreaks, among others. Nevertheless, the impact of these alterations in multitrophic interactions, including host-pathogen and vector-pathogen dynamics, is still not well understood in wild plants. This study aimed to provide insights into the main drivers for the incidence of herbivory and plant pathogen damage, specifically, into how vegetation traits at the local and landscape scale modulate such interactions. For this purpose, in the tropical forest of Calakmul (Campeche, Mexico), we characterised the foliar damage caused by herbivores and pathogens in woody vegetation of 13 sampling sites representing a gradient of forest disturbance and fragmentation in an anthropogenic landscape from well preserved to highly disturbed and fragmented areas. We also evaluated how the incidence of such damage was modulated by the vegetation and landscape attributes. We found that the incidence of damage caused by larger, mobile, generalist herbivores, was more sensitive to changes in landscape configuration, while the incidence of damage caused by small and specialised herbivores with low dispersal capacity was more influenced by vegetation and landscape composition. In relation to pathogen symptoms, the herbivore-induced foliar damage seems to be the main factor related to their incidence, indicating the enormous importance of herbivorous insects in the modulation of disease dynamics across tropical vegetation, as they could be acting as vectors and/or facilitating the entry of pathogens by breaking the foliar tissue and the plant defensive barriers. The incidence of pathogen damage also responded to vegetation structure and landscape configuration; the incidence of anthracnose, black spot, and chlorosis, for example, were favoured in sites surrounded by smaller patches and a higher edge density, as well as those with a greater aggregation of semi-evergreen forest patches. Fungal pathogens were shown to be an important cause of foliar damage for many woody species. Our results indicate that an increasing transformation and fragmentation of the tropical forest of southern Mexico could reduce the degree of specialisation in plant-herbivore interactions and enhance the proliferation of generalist herbivores (chewers and scrapers) and of mobile leaf suckers, and consequently, the proliferation of some symptoms associated with fungal pathogens such as fungus black spots and anthracnose. The symptoms associated with viral and bacterial diseases and to nutrient deficiency, such as chlorosis, could also increase in the vegetation in fragmented landscapes with important consequences in the health and productivity of wild and cultivated plant species. This is a pioneering study evaluating the effect of disturbances on multitrophic interactions, offering key insights on the main drivers of the changes in herbivory interactions and incidence of plant pathogens in tropical forests.

The Assembly of Tropical Dry Forest Tree Communities in Anthropogenic Landscapes: The Role of Chemical Defenses.

The effect of anthropogenic disturbance on plant community traits and tradeoffs remains poorly explored in tropical forests. In this study, we aimed to identify tradeoffs between defense and other plant functions related to growth processes in order to detect potential aboveground and edaphic environmental conditions modulating traits variation on plant communities, and to find potential assembly rules underlying species coexistence in secondary (SEF) and old-growth forests (OGF). We measured the foliar content of defense phytochemicals and leaf traits related to fundamental functions on 77 species found in SEF and OGF sites in the Jalisco dry forest ecoregion, Mexico, and we explored (1) the trait-trait and trait-habitat associations, (2) the intra and interspecies trait variation, and (3) the traits-environment associations. We found that phytochemical content was associated with high leaf density and leaf fresh mass, resulting in leaves resistant to drought and high radiation, with chemical and physical defenses against herbivore/pathogen attack. The phytochemicals and chlorophyll concentrations were negatively related, matching the predictions of the Protein Competition Model. The phylogenetic signal in functional traits, suggests that abundant clades share the ability to resist the harsh biotic and abiotic conditions and face similar tradeoffs between productive and defensive functions. Environmental filters could modulate the enhanced expression of defensive phytochemicals in SEF, while, in OGFs, we found a stronger filtering effect driving community assembly. This could allow for the coexistence of different defensive strategies in OGFs, where a greater species richness could dilute the prevalence of pathogens/herbivores. Consequently, anthropogenic disturbance could alter TDF ecosystem properties/services and functioning.

Landscape structure shapes the diversity of tree seedlings at multiple spatial scales in a fragmented tropical rainforest.

The maintenance of seedling diversity of animal-dispersed tree species is fundamental for the structure and function of forest patches in fragmented tropical rainforests. Nonetheless, the effects of landscape structure at different spatial scales on α- and ß-diversity of tree seedling communities are recently explored. Using a multi-scale approach, we assessed the relative effect of landscape composition and configuration on α- and ß-diversity of animal-dispersed seedlings within 16 forest patches in the Lacandona rainforest, Mexico. We assessed these effects at 13 spatial scales (from 300 to 1500 m radius, at 100 m intervals) for three metrics of effective number of species considering α- and ß-diversity. We found that α-diversity was largely affected by landscape composition and ß-diversity by landscape configuration. On the one hand, the amount of secondary forest influenced α-diversity. Additionally, species richness increased in landscapes with highly aggregated forest patches. On the other hand, ß-diversity was affected positively by forest fragmentation and negatively by the edge contrast of forest patches with the surrounding matrix. Our findings indicate that landscape configuration is a strong driver of seedling diversity in highly deforested rainforests. Promoting forest patches and secondary forests through payment for ecosystem services' programs, favoring matrix quality within land-sharing schemes of smallholder agriculture and secondary forest management, and identifying restoration opportunities for assisted or unassisted natural regeneration are urgently needed for conservation of seedling diversity in human-modified tropical landscapes.

Mexico ants: incidence and abundance along the Nearctic-Neotropical interface.

Mexico is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, with an important proportion of endemism mainly because of the convergence of the Nearctic and Neotropical biogeographic regions, which generate great diversity and species turnover at different spatial scales. However, most of our knowledge of the Mexican ant biota is limited to a few well-studied taxa, and we lack a comprehensive synthesis of ant biodiversity information. For instance, most of the knowledge available in the literature on Mexican ant fauna refers only to species lists by states, or is focused on only a few regions of the country, which prevents the study of several basic and applied aspects of ants, from diversity and distribution to conservation. Our aims in this data paper are therefore (1) to compile all the information available regarding ants across the Mexican territory, and (2) to identify major patterns in the gathered data set and geographic gaps in order to direct future sampling efforts. All records were obtained from raw data, including both unpublished and published information. After exhaustive filtering and updating information and synonyms, we compiled a total of 21,731 records for 887 ant species distributed throughout Mexico from 1894 to 2018. These records were concentrated mainly in the states of Chiapas (n = 6,902, 32.76%) and Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (n = 4,329, 19.92%), which together comprise half the records. The subfamily with the highest number of records was Myrmicinae (n = 10,458 records, 48.12%), followed by Formicinae (n = 3,284, 15.11%) and Ponerinae (n = 1,914, 8.8%). Most ant records were collected in the Neotropical region of the country (n = 12,646, 58.19%), followed by the Mexican transition zone (n = 5,237, 24.09%) and the Nearctic region (n = 3,848, 17.72%). Native species comprised 95.46% of the records (n = 20,745). To the best of our knowledge, this is the most complete data set available to date in the literature for the country. We hope that this compilation will encourage researchers to explore different aspects of the population and community research of ants at different spatial scales, and to aid in the establishment of conservation policies and actions. There are no copyright restrictions. Please cite this data paper when using its data for publications or teaching events.

Living on the edge: roads and edge effects on small mammal populations.

1. Roads may affect wildlife populations through habitat loss and disturbances, as they create an abrupt linear edge, increasing the proportion of edge exposed to a different habitat. Three types of edge effects have been recognized: abiotic, direct biotic, and indirect biotic. 2. We explored the direct biotic edge effects of 3- to 4-m wide roads, and also a previously unrecognized type of edge effect: social. We live-trapped two threatened endemic rodents from Cozumel Island (Oryzomys couesi cozumelae and Reithrodontomys spectabilis) in 16 plots delimited by roads on two sides, to compare edge effects between two adjacent edges (corners), single-edge and interior forest, on life history and social variables. 3. No significant edge effects were observed on the life-history variables, with the exception of differences in body condition between males and females of O. c. cozumelae near edges. Both species showed significant and contrasting effects on their social variables. 4. O. c. cozumelae was distributed according to its age and sex: the proportion of adults and males was higher in interior than near edges, while juveniles and females were more abundant near edges. More nonreproductive females were present in corners than in single-edge and interior, while the opposite distribution was observed for nonreproductive males. 5. The distribution of R. spectabilis was related to its age and reproductive condition, but not to its sex. The proportion of adults was significantly higher in corners, while juveniles were only caught in single-edge and interior quadrants. The proportion of reproductive individuals was higher in edge than interior quadrants, while reproductive females were only present in edge quadrants. 6. We found significant differences between the quadrants with the greatest edge exposure in comparison with other quadrants. The social edge effects we identified complement the typology of edge effects recognized in ecological literature. Our study provides insight into the effects that sharp road edges have on biological and social characteristics of small mammal populations, highlighting how such effects vary among species. Our findings have important conservation implications for these threatened species, but are also applicable in a broader context wherever there are abrupt edges caused by linear landscape features.

Value of small patches in the conservation of plant-species diversity in highly fragmented rainforest.

We evaluated the importance of small (<5 ha) forest patches for the conservation of regional plant diversity in the tropical rainforest of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. We analyzed the density of plant species (number of species per 0.1 ha) in 45 forest patches of different sizes (1-700 ha) in 3 landscapes with different deforestation levels (4, 11, and 24% forest cover). Most of the 364 species sampled (360 species, 99%) were native to the region, and only 4 (1%) were human-introduced species. Species density in the smallest patches was high and variable; the highest (84 species) and lowest (23 species) number of species were recorded in patches of up to 1.8 ha. Despite the small size of these patches, they contained diverse communities of native plants, including endangered and economically important species. The relationship between species density and area was significantly different among the landscapes, with a significant positive slope only in the landscape with the highest deforestation level. This indicates that species density in a patch of a given size may vary among landscapes that have different deforestation levels. Therefore, the conservation value of a patch depends on the total forest cover remaining in the landscape. Our findings revealed, however, that a great portion of regional plant diversity was located in very small forest patches (<5 ha), most of the species were restricted to only a few patches (41% of the species sampled were distributed in only 1-2 patches, and almost 70% were distributed in 5 patches) and each landscape conserved a unique plant assemblage. The conservation and restoration of small patches is therefore necessary to effectively preserve the plant diversity of this strongly deforested and unique Neotropical region.

Impact of habitat loss on the diversity and structure of ecological networks between oxyurid nematodes and spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca L.).

Habitat loss and fragmentation are recognized as affecting the nature of biotic interactions, although we still know little about such changes for reptilian herbivores and their hindgut nematodes, in which endosymbiont interactions could range from mutualistic to commensal and parasitic. We investigated the potential cost and benefit of endosymbiont interactions between the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca L.) and adult oxyurid nematodes (Pharyngodonidae order Oxyurida) in scrublands of southern Spain. For this, we assessed the association between richness and abundance of oxyurid species with tortoises' growth rates and body traits (weight and carapace length) across levels of habitat loss (low, intermediate and high). Furthermore, by using an intrapopulation ecological network approach, we evaluated the structure and diversity of tortoise-oxyurid interactions by focusing on oxyurid species infesting individual tortoises with different body traits and growth rates across habitats. Overall, tortoise body traits were not related to oxyurid infestation across habitats. Oxyurid richness and abundance however, showed contrasting relationships with growth rates across levels of habitat loss. At low habitat loss, oxyurid infestation was positively associated with growth rates (suggesting a mutualistic oxyurid-tortoise relationship), but the association became negative at high habitat loss (suggesting a parasitic relationship). Furthermore, no relationship was observed when habitat loss was intermediate (suggesting a commensal relationship). The network analysis showed that the oxyurid community was not randomly assembled but significantly nested, revealing a structured pattern for all levels of habitat loss. The diversity of interactions was lowest at low habitat loss. The intermediate level, however, showed the greatest specialization, which indicates that individuals were infested by fewer oxyurids in this landscape, whereas at high habitat loss individuals were the most generalized hosts. Related to the latter, connectance was greatest at high habitat loss, reflecting a more uniform spread of interactions among oxyurid species. At an individual level, heavier and larger tortoises tended to show a greater number of oxyurid species interactions. We conclude that there is an association between habitat loss and the tortoise-oxyurid interaction. Although we cannot infer causality in their association, we hypothesize that such oxyurids could have negative, neutral and positive consequences for tortoise growth rates. Ecological network analysis can help in the understanding of the nature of such changes in tortoise-oxyurid interactions by showing how generalized or specialized such interactions are under different environmental conditions and how vulnerable endosymbiont interactions might be to further habitat loss.

The Multiple Impacts of Tropical Forest Fragmentation on Arthropod Biodiversity and on their Patterns of Interactions with Host Plants.

Tropical rain forest fragmentation affects biotic interactions in distinct ways. Little is known, however, about how fragmentation affects animal trophic guilds and their patterns of interactions with host plants. In this study, we analyzed changes in biotic interactions in forest fragments by using a multitrophic approach. For this, we classified arthropods associated with Heliconia aurantiaca herbs into broad trophic guilds (omnivores, herbivores and predators) and assessed the topological structure of intrapopulation plant-arthropod networks in fragments and continuous forests. Habitat type influenced arthropod species abundance, diversity and composition with greater abundance in fragments but greater diversity in continuous forest. According to trophic guilds, coleopteran herbivores were more abundant in continuous forest and overall omnivores in fragments. Continuous forest showed a greater diversity of interactions than fragments. Only in fragments, however, did the arthropod community associated with H aurantiaca show a nested structure, suggesting novel and/or opportunistic host-arthropod associations. Plants, omnivores and predators contributed more to nestedness than herbivores. Therefore, Heliconia-arthropod network properties do not appear to be maintained in fragments mainly caused by the decrease of herbivores. Our study contributes to the understanding of the impact of fragmentation on the structure and dynamics of multitrophic arthropod communities associated with a particular plant species of the highly biodiverse tropical forests. Nevertheless, further replication of study sites is needed to strengthen the conclusion that forest fragmentation negatively affects arthropod assemblages.