Galectin-9 recognizes and exhibits antimicrobial activity toward microbes expressing blood group-like antigens.

While adaptive immunity recognizes a nearly infinite range of antigenic determinants, immune tolerance renders adaptive immunity vulnerable to microbes decorated in self-like antigens. Recent studies suggest that sugar-binding proteins galectin-4 and galectin-8 bind microbes expressing blood group antigens. However, the binding profile and potential antimicrobial activity of other galectins, particularly galectin-9 (Gal-9), has remained incompletely defined. Here, we demonstrate that while Gal-9 possesses strong binding preference for ABO(H) blood group antigens, each domain exhibits distinct binding patterns, with the C-terminal domain (Gal-9C) exhibiting higher binding to blood group B than the N-terminal domain (Gal-9N). Despite this binding preference, Gal-9 readily killed blood group B-positive Escherichia coli, whereas Gal-9N displayed higher killing activity against this microbe than Gal-9C. Utilization of microarrays populated with blood group O antigens from a diverse array of microbes revealed that Gal-9 can bind various microbial glycans, whereas Gal-9N and Gal-9C displayed distinct and overlapping binding preferences. Flow cytometric examination of intact microbes corroborated the microbial glycan microarray findings, demonstrating that Gal-9, Gal-9N, and Gal-9C also possess the capacity to recognize distinct strains of Providencia alcalifaciens and Klebsiella pneumoniae that express mammalian blood group-like antigens while failing to bind related strains that do not express mammalian-like glycans. In each case of microbial binding, Gal-9, Gal-9N, and Gal-9C induced microbial death. In contrast, while Gal-9, Gal-9N, and Gal-9C engaged red blood cells, each failed to induce hemolysis. These data suggest that Gal-9 recognition of distinct microbial strains may provide antimicrobial activity against molecular mimicry.

Mutational Analysis of the Structure and Function of the Chaperoning Domain of UNC-45B.

UNC-45B is a multidomain molecular chaperone that is essential for the proper folding and assembly of myosin into muscle thick filaments in vivo. It has previously been demonstrated that the UCS domain is responsible for the chaperone-like properties of the UNC-45B. To better understand the chaperoning function of the UCS domain of the UNC-45B chaperone, we engineered mutations designed to 1) disrupt chaperone-client interactions by removing and altering the structure of a putative client-interacting loop and 2) disrupt chaperone-client interactions by changing highly conserved residues in a putative client-binding groove. We tested the effect of these mutations by using a, to our knowledge, novel combination of complementary biophysical assays (circular dichroism, chaperone activity, and small-angle x-ray scattering) and in vivo tools (Caenorhabditis elegans sarcomere structure). Removing the putative client-binding loop altered the secondary structure of the UCS domain (by decreasing the α-helix content), leading to a significant change in its solution conformation and a reduced chaperoning function. Additionally, we found that mutating several conserved residues in the putative client-binding groove did not alter the UCS domain secondary structure or structural stability but reduced its chaperoning activity. In vivo, these groove mutations were found to significantly alter the structure and organization of C. elegans sarcomeres. Furthermore, we tested the effect of R805W, a mutation distant from the putative client-binding region, which in humans, has been known to cause congenital and infantile cataracts. Our in vivo data show that, to our surprise, the R805W mutation appeared to have the most drastic detrimental effect on the structure and organization of the worm sarcomeres, indicating a crucial role of R805 in UCS-client interactions. Hence, our experimental approach combining biophysical and biological tools facilitates the study of myosin-chaperone interactions in mechanistic detail.

Indoles from commensal bacteria extend healthspan.

Multiple studies have identified conserved genetic pathways and small molecules associated with extension of lifespan in diverse organisms. However, extending lifespan does not result in concomitant extension in healthspan, defined as the proportion of time that an animal remains healthy and free of age-related infirmities. Rather, mutations that extend lifespan often reduce healthspan and increase frailty. The question arises as to whether factors or mechanisms exist that uncouple these processes and extend healthspan and reduce frailty independent of lifespan. We show that indoles from commensal microbiota extend healthspan of diverse organisms, including Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and mice, but have a negligible effect on maximal lifespan. Effects of indoles on healthspan in worms and flies depend upon the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), a conserved detector of xenobiotic small molecules. In C. elegans, indole induces a gene expression profile in aged animals reminiscent of that seen in the young, but which is distinct from that associated with normal aging. Moreover, in older animals, indole induces genes associated with oogenesis and, accordingly, extends fecundity and reproductive span. Together, these data suggest that small molecules related to indole and derived from commensal microbiota act in diverse phyla via conserved molecular pathways to promote healthy aging. These data raise the possibility of developing therapeutics based on microbiota-derived indole or its derivatives to extend healthspan and reduce frailty in humans.

Suppressor mutations suggest a surface on PAT-4 (Integrin-linked Kinase) that interacts with UNC-112 (Kindlin).

Caenorhabditis elegans striated muscle cells attach to basement membrane and transmit the force of muscle contraction through integrin adhesion complexes. The cytoplasmic tail of ß-integrin (PAT-3) is associated with a conserved four-protein complex that includes UNC-112 (kindlin), PAT-4 (integrin-linked kinase), PAT-6 (α-parvin/actopaxin), and UNC-97 (PINCH). The proper localization of UNC-112 to muscle integrin adhesion sites requires PAT-4. A recent report (Qadota, H., Moerman, D. G., and Benian, G. M. (2012) A molecular mechanism for the requirement of PAT-4 (integrin-linked kinase (ILK)) for the localization of UNC-112 (kindlin) to integrin adhesion sites. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 28537-28551) suggests a possible molecular mechanism for this requirement: that UNC-112 exists in closed inactive and open active conformations, and conversion to the open active form is promoted by binding to PAT-4 (ILK). Previously, we also reported identification of a single missense mutation in UNC-112, D382V, which abolishes both binding to PAT-4 and normal localization to integrin adhesion sites in vivo. In this report, we describe isolation and characterization of PAT-4 missense mutations that permit binding with UNC-112 D382V and place nine affected residues on a homology model of PAT-4. These nine residues cluster in two regions on the surface of PAT-4, do not overlap the likely binding surface for PAT-6 (α-parvin), and therefore may reside along the interaction surface of PAT-4 for UNC-112 (kindlin). We also show that one of these PAT-4 mutations restores the ability of UNC-112 D382V to localize to integrin adhesions and participate in complex formation.

Identification of an N-terminal inhibitory extension as the primary mechanosensory regulator of twitchin kinase.

Titin-like kinases are an important class of cytoskeletal kinases that intervene in the response of muscle to mechanical stimulation, being central to myofibril homeostasis and development. These kinases exist in autoinhibited states and, allegedly, become activated during muscle activity by the elastic unfolding of a C-terminal regulatory segment (CRD). However, this mechano-activation model remains controversial. Here we explore the structural, catalytic, and tensile properties of the multidomain kinase region of Caenorhabditis elegans twitchin (Fn(31)-Nlinker-kinase-CRD-Ig(26)) using X-ray crystallography, small angle X-ray scattering, molecular dynamics simulations, and catalytic assays. This work uncovers the existence of an inhibitory segment that flanks the kinase N-terminally (N-linker) and that acts synergistically with the canonical CRD tail to silence catalysis. The N-linker region has high mechanical lability and acts as the primary stretch-sensor in twitchin kinase, while the CRD is poorly responsive to pulling forces. This poor response suggests that the CRD is not a generic mechanosensor in this kinase family. Instead, the CRD is shown here to be permissive to catalysis and might protect the kinase active site against mechanical damage. Thus, we put forward a regulatory model where kinase inhibition results from the combined action of both N- and C-terminal tails, but only the N-terminal extension undergoes mechanical removal, thereby affording partial activation. Further, we compare invertebrate and vertebrate titin-like kinases and identify variations in the regulatory segments that suggest a mechanical speciation of these kinase classes.

The RhoGAP RRC-1 is required for the assembly or stability of integrin adhesion complexes and is a member of the PIX pathway in muscle.

GTPases cycle between active GTP bound and inactive GDP bound forms. Exchange of GDP for GTP is catalyzed by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs). GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) accelerate GTP hydrolysis, to promote the GDP bound form. We reported that the RacGEF, PIX-1, is required for assembly of integrin adhesion complexes (IAC) in striated muscle of Caenorhabditis elegans. In C. elegans, IACs are found at the muscle cell boundaries (MCBs), and bases of sarcomeric M-lines and dense bodies (Z-disks). Screening C. elegans mutants in proteins containing RhoGAP domains revealed that loss of function of rrc-1 results in loss of IAC components at MCBs, disorganization of M-lines and dense bodies, and reduced whole animal locomotion. RRC-1 localizes to MCBs, like PIX-1. The localization of RRC-1 at MCBs requires PIX-1, and the localization of PIX-1 requires RRC-1. Loss of function of CED-10 (Rac) shows lack of PIX-1 and RRC-1 at MCBs. RRC-1 exists in a complex with PIX-1. Transgenic rescue of rrc-1 was achieved with wild type RRC-1 but not RRC-1 with a missense mutation in a highly conserved residue of the RhoGAP domain. Our results are consistent with RRC-1 being a RhoGAP for the PIX pathway in muscle.

The myosin chaperone UNC-45 has an important role in maintaining the structure and function of muscle sarcomeres during adult aging.

C. elegans undergo age-dependent declines in muscle organization and function, similar to human sarcopenia. The chaperone UNC-45 is required to fold myosin heads after translation and is likely used for refolding after thermally- or chemically-induced unfolding. UNC-45's TPR region binds HSP-90 and its UCS domain binds myosin heads. We observe early onset sarcopenia when UNC-45 is reduced at the beginning of adulthood. There is sequential decline of HSP-90, UNC-45, and MHC B myosin. A mutation in age-1 delays sarcopenia and loss of HSP-90, UNC-45, and myosin. UNC-45 undergoes age-dependent phosphorylation, and mass spectrometry reveals phosphorylation of six serines and two threonines, seven of which occur in the UCS domain. Additional expression of UNC-45 results in maintenance of MHC B myosin and suppression of A-band disorganization in old animals. Our results suggest that increased expression or activity of UNC-45 might be a strategy for prevention or treatment of sarcopenia.

A molecular mechanism for the requirement of PAT-4 (integrin-linked kinase (ILK)) for the localization of UNC-112 (Kindlin) to integrin adhesion sites.

Caenorhabditis elegans muscle cells attach to basement membrane through adhesion plaques. PAT-3 (ß-integrin), UNC-112 (kindlin), and PAT-4 (integrin-linked kinase) are associated with these structures. Genetic analysis indicated that PAT-4 is required for UNC-112 to be properly localized. We investigated the molecular basis of this requirement. We show that the cytoplasmic tail of PAT-3 binds to full-length UNC-112 and that the N- and C-terminal halves of UNC-112 bind to each other. We demonstrate competition between the UNC-112 C-terminal half and PAT-4 for binding to the UNC-112 N-terminal half. The D382V mutation results in lack of binding to PAT-4 and lack of localization to adhesion structures. T346A or E349K mutations, which abolish interaction of the N- and C-terminal halves, permit D382V UNC-112 to localize to adhesion structures. The following model is proposed. UNC-112 exists in closed inactive and open active conformations, and upon binding of PAT-4 to the UNC-112 N-terminal half, UNC-112 is converted into the open state, able to bind to PAT-3.

Mechanistic and functional diversity in the mechanosensory kinases of the titin-like family.

The giant cytoskeletal kinases of the titin-like family are emerging as key mediators of stretch-sensing in muscle. It is thought that their elastic conformational deformation during muscle function regulates both their catalysis and the recruitment of regulatory proteins to signalosomes that assemble in their vicinity. In the present article, we discuss the speciation of mechanosensory mechanisms in titin-like kinases, their scaffolding properties and the kinase/pseudokinase domain variations that define a rich functional diversity across the family.

Caenorhabditis elegans muscle: a genetic and molecular model for protein interactions in the heart.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has become established as a major experimental organism with applications to many biomedical research areas. The body wall muscle cells are a useful model for the study of human cardiomyocytes and their homologous structures and proteins. The ability to readily identify mutations affecting these proteins and structures in C elegans and to be able to rigorously characterize their genotypes and phenotypes at the cellular and molecular levels permits mechanistic studies of the responsible interactions relevant to the inherited human cardiomyopathies. Future work in C elegans muscle holds great promise in uncovering new mechanisms in the pathogenesis of these cardiac disorders.

Bending amplitude - a new quantitative assay of C. elegans locomotion: identification of phenotypes for mutants in genes encoding muscle focal adhesion components.

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans uses striated muscle in its body wall for locomotion. The myofilament lattice is organized such that all the thin filament attachment structures (dense bodies, analogous to Z-disks) and thick filament organizing centers (M-lines) are attached to the muscle cell membrane. Thus, the force of muscle contraction is transmitted through these structures and allows locomotion of the worm. Dense bodies and M-lines are compositionally similar to focal adhesions and costameres, and are based on integrin and associated proteins. Null mutants for many of the newly discovered dense body and M-line proteins do not have obvious locomotion defects when observed casually, or when assayed by counting the number of times a worm moves back and forth in liquid. We hypothesized that many of these proteins, located as they are in muscle focal adhesions, function in force transmission, but we had not used an appropriate or sufficiently sensitive assay to reveal this function. Recently, we have developed a new quantitative assay of C. elegans locomotion that measures the maximum bending amplitude of an adult worm as it moves backwards. The assay had been used to reveal locomotion defects for null mutants of genes encoding ATN-1 (α-actinin) and PKN-1 (protein kinase N). Here, we describe the details of this method, and apply it to 21 loss of function mutants in 17 additional genes, most of which encode components of muscle attachment structures. As compared to wild type, mutants in 11 genes were found to have less ability to bend, and mutants in one gene were found to have greater ability to bend. Loss of function mutants for eight proteins had been reported to have normal locomotion (ZYX-1 (zyxin), ALP-1 (Enigma), DIM-1, SCPL-1), or locomotion that was not previously investigated (FRG-1 (FRG1), KIN-32 (focal adhesion kinase), LIM-8), or had only slightly decreased locomotion (PFN-3 (profilin)).

FARL-11 (STRIP1/2) is required for sarcomere and sarcoplasmic reticulum organization in C. elegans.

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) functions in a variety of cellular contexts. PP2A can assemble into four different complexes based on the inclusion of different regulatory or targeting subunits. The B''' regulatory subunit "striatin" forms the STRIPAK complex consisting of striatin, a catalytic subunit (PP2AC), striatin-interacting protein 1 (STRIP1), and MOB family member 4 (MOB4). In yeast and Caenorhabditis elegans, STRIP1 is required for formation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Because the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is the highly organized muscle-specific version of ER, we sought to determine the function of the STRIPAK complex in muscle using C. elegans. CASH-1 (striatin) and FARL-11 (STRIP1/2) form a complex in vivo, and each protein is localized to SR. Missense mutations and single amino acid losses in farl-11 and cash-1 each result in similar sarcomere disorganization. A missense mutation in farl-11 shows no detectable FARL-11 protein by immunoblot, disruption of SR organization around M-lines, and altered levels of the SR Ca+2 release channel UNC-68.

FARL-11 (STRIP1/2) is Required for Sarcomere and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Organization in C. elegans.

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) functions in a variety of cellular contexts. PP2A can assemble into four different complexes based on the inclusion of different regulatory or targeting subunits. The B''' regulatory subunit "striatin" forms the STRIPAK complex consisting of striatin, a catalytic subunit (PP2AC), striatin interacting protein 1 (STRIP1), and MOB family member 4 (MOB4). In yeast and C. elegans, STRIP1 is required for formation of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Since the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is the highly organized muscle-specific version of ER, we sought to determine the function of the STRIPAK complex in muscle using C. elegans . CASH-1 (striatin) and FARL-11 (STRIP1/2) form a complex in vivo , and each protein is localized to SR. Missense mutations and single amino acid losses in farl-11 and cash-1 each result in similar sarcomere disorganization. A missense mutation in farl-11 shows no detectable FARL-11 protein by immunoblot, disruption of SR organization around M-lines, and altered levels of the SR Ca +2 release channel UNC-68. Summary: Protein phosphatase 2A forms a STRIPAK complex when it includes the targeting B''' subunit "striatin" and STRIP1. STRIP1 is required for formation of ER. We show that in muscle STRIP1 is required for organization of SR and sarcomeres.

Genetic analysis suggests a surface of PAT-4 (ILK) that interacts with UNC-112 (kindlin).

Integrin plays a crucial role in the attachment of cells to the extracellular matrix. Integrin recruits many proteins intracellularly, including a 4-protein complex (kindlin, ILK, PINCH, and parvin). Caenorhabditis elegans muscle provides an excellent model to study integrin adhesion complexes. In Caenorhabditis elegans, UNC-112 (kindlin) binds to the cytoplasmic tail of PAT-3 (ß-integrin) and to PAT-4 (ILK). We previously reported that PAT-4 binding to UNC-112 is essential for the binding of UNC-112 to PAT-3. Although there are crystal structures for ILK and a kindlin, there is no co-crystal structure available. To understand the molecular interaction between PAT-4 and UNC-112, we took a genetic approach. First, using a yeast 2-hybrid method, we isolated mutant PAT-4 proteins that cannot bind to UNC-112 and then isolated suppressor mutant UNC-112 proteins that restore interaction with mutant PAT-4 proteins. Second, we demonstrated that these mutant PAT-4 proteins cannot localize to attachment structures in nematode muscle, but upon co-expression of an UNC-112 suppressor mutant protein, mutant PAT-4 proteins could localize to attachment structures. Third, overexpression of a PAT-4 mutant results in the disorganization of adhesion plaques at muscle cell boundaries and co-expression of the UNC-112 suppressor mutant protein alleviates this defect. Thus, we demonstrate that UNC-112 binding to PAT-4 is required for the localization and function of PAT-4 in integrin adhesion complexes in vivo. The missense mutations were mapped onto homology models of PAT-4 and UNC-112, and taking into account previously isolated mutations, we suggest a surface of PAT-4 that binds to UNC-112.

Neuronal C/EBPß/AEP pathway shortens life span via selective GABAnergic neuronal degeneration by FOXO repression.

The age-related cognitive decline of normal aging is exacerbated in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, it remains unclear whether age-related cognitive regulators in AD pathologies contribute to life span. Here, we show that C/EBPß, an Aß and inflammatory cytokine-activated transcription factor that promotes AD pathologies via activating asparagine endopeptidase (AEP), mediates longevity in a gene dose-dependent manner in neuronal C/EBPß transgenic mice. C/EBPß selectively triggers inhibitory GABAnergic neuronal degeneration by repressing FOXOs and up-regulating AEP, leading to aberrant neural excitation and cognitive dysfunction. Overexpression of CEBP-2 or LGMN-1 (AEP) in Caenorhabditis elegans neurons but not muscle stimulates neural excitation and shortens life span. CEBP-2 or LGMN-1 reduces daf-2 mutant-elongated life span and diminishes daf-16-induced longevity. C/EBPß and AEP are lower in humans with extended longevity and inversely correlated with REST/FOXO1. These findings demonstrate a conserved mechanism of aging that couples pathological cognitive decline to life span by the neuronal C/EBPß/AEP pathway.

UNC-98 links an integrin-associated complex to thick filaments in Caenorhabditis elegans muscle.

Focal adhesions are multiprotein assemblages that link cells to the extracellular matrix. The transmembrane protein, integrin, is a key component of these structures. In vertebrate muscle, focal adhesion-like structures called costameres attach myofibrils at the periphery of muscle cells to the cell membrane. In Caenorhabditis elegans muscle, all the myofibrils are attached to the cell membrane at both dense bodies (Z-disks) and M-lines. Clustered at the base of dense bodies and M-lines, and associated with the cytoplasmic tail of beta-integrin, is a complex of many proteins, including UNC-97 (vertebrate PINCH). Previously, we showed that UNC-97 interacts with UNC-98, a 37-kD protein, containing four C2H2 Zn fingers, that localizes to M-lines. We report that UNC-98 also interacts with the C-terminal portion of a myosin heavy chain. Multiple lines of evidence support a model in which UNC-98 links integrin-associated proteins to myosin in thick filaments at M-lines.

Missense mutation of a conserved residue in UNC-112 (kindlin) eliminates binding to PAT-4 (ILK).

C. elegans UNC-112 (kindlin) is required for muscle sarcomere assembly, and is one component of a conserved four-protein complex that associates with the cytoplasmic tail of integrin at the base of integrin adhesion complexes in muscle. The four-protein complex consists of UNC-112 (kindlin), PAT-4 (integrin linked kinase; ILK), PAT-6 (alpha-parvin), and UNC-97 (PINCH). UNC-112 is comprised of 720 amino acid residues and contains FERM and PH domains. The N-terminal half of UNC-112 (1-396 aa) can bind to the C-terminal half of UNC-112 (397-720 aa), and this interaction is inhibited by the association of PAT-4 (ILK) to the N-terminal half of UNC-112. In support of this model, previously, we reported identification of a D382V mutation that results in lack of binding to PAT-4. However, this residue is not conserved in human Kindlins. Here, we report identification of a novel UNC-112 mutation of a conserved residue that cannot bind to PAT-4. UNC-112 E302G cannot bind to PAT-4 and does not localize to integrin adhesion complexes in muscle.

Mutations in conserved residues of the myosin chaperone UNC-45 result in both reduced stability and chaperoning activity.

Proper muscle development and function depend on myosin being properly folded and integrated into the thick filament structure. For this to occur the myosin chaperone UNC-45, or UNC-45B, must be present and able to chaperone myosin. Here we use a combination of in vivo C. elegans experiments and in vitro biophysical experiments to analyze the effects of six missense mutations in conserved regions of UNC-45/UNC-45B. We found that the phenotype of paralysis and disorganized thick filaments in 5/6 of the mutant nematode strains can likely be attributed to both reduced steady state UNC-45 protein levels and reduced chaperone activity. Interestingly, the biophysical assays performed on purified proteins show that all of the mutations result in reduced myosin chaperone activity but not overall protein stability. This suggests that these mutations only cause protein instability in the in vivo setting and that these conserved regions may be involved in UNC-45 protein stability/regulation via posttranslational modifications, protein-protein interactions, or some other unknown mechanism.

Conformational changes in twitchin kinase in vivo revealed by FRET imaging of freely moving C. elegans.

The force-induced unfolding and refolding of proteins is speculated to be a key mechanism in the sensing and transduction of mechanical signals in the living cell. Yet, little evidence has been gathered for its existence in vivo. Prominently, stretch-induced unfolding is postulated to be the activation mechanism of the twitchin/titin family of autoinhibited sarcomeric kinases linked to the mechanical stress response of muscle. To test the occurrence of mechanical kinase activation in living working muscle, we generated transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans expressing twitchin containing FRET moieties flanking the kinase domain and developed a quantitative technique for extracting FRET signals in freely moving C. elegans, using tracking and simultaneous imaging of animals in three channels (donor fluorescence, acceptor fluorescence, and transmitted light). Computer vision algorithms were used to extract fluorescence signals and muscle contraction states in each frame, in order to obtain fluorescence and body curvature measurements with spatial and temporal precision in vivo. The data revealed statistically significant periodic changes in FRET signals during muscle activity, consistent with a periodic change in the conformation of twitchin kinase. We conclude that stretch-unfolding of twitchin kinase occurs in the active muscle, whereby mechanical activity titrates the signaling pathway of this cytoskeletal kinase. We anticipate that the methods we have developed here could be applied to obtaining in vivo evidence for force-induced conformational changes or elastic behavior of other proteins not only in C. elegans but in other animals in which there is optical transparency (e.g., zebrafish).

Investigating the correlation of muscle function tests and sarcomere organization in C. elegans.

BACKGROUND: Caenorhabditis elegans has been widely used as a model to study muscle structure and function. Its body wall muscle is functionally and structurally similar to vertebrate skeletal muscle with conserved molecular pathways contributing to sarcomere structure, and muscle function. However, a systematic investigation of the relationship between muscle force and sarcomere organization is lacking. Here, we investigate the contribution of various sarcomere proteins and membrane attachment components to muscle structure and function to introduce C. elegans as a model organism to study the genetic basis of muscle strength. METHODS: We employ two recently developed assays that involve exertion of muscle forces to investigate the correlation of muscle function to sarcomere organization. We utilized a microfluidic pillar-based platform called NemaFlex that quantifies the maximum exertable force and a burrowing assay that challenges the animals to move in three dimensions under a chemical stimulus. We selected 20 mutants with known defects in various substructures of sarcomeres and compared the physiological function of muscle proteins required for force generation and transmission. We also characterized the degree of sarcomere disorganization using immunostaining approaches. RESULTS: We find that mutants with genetic defects in thin filaments, thick filaments, and M-lines are generally weaker, and our assays are successful in detecting the functional changes in response to each sarcomere location tested. We find that the NemaFlex and burrowing assays are functionally distinct informing on different aspects of muscle physiology. Specifically, the burrowing assay has a larger bandwidth in phenotyping muscle mutants, because it could pick ten additional mutants impaired while exerting normal muscle force in NemaFlex. This enabled us to combine their readouts to develop an integrated muscle function score that was found to correlate with the score for muscle structure disorganization. CONCLUSIONS: Our results highlight the suitability of NemaFlex and burrowing assays for evaluating muscle physiology of C. elegans. Using these approaches, we discuss the importance of the studied sarcomere proteins for muscle function and structure. The scoring methodology we have developed enhances the utility of  C. elegans as a genetic model to study muscle function.