Antiviral drugs for cytomegalovirus diseases.

Cytomegalovirus infections are associated with severe morbidity and mortality is patients at risk for disease because of immune system disabilities; in particular, recipients of stem cell (HSCT) or solid organ (SOT) transplants. There are three systemic drugs approved for CMV treatment: ganciclovir, or its prodrug valganciclovir, foscarnet, and cidofovir. An anti-sense therapeutic, ISIS 2922, is also approved specifically as in intravitreal treatment for CMV retinitis. Ganciclovir, and more recently, valganciclovir, have been useful in proactive approaches of CMV disease management; in both prophylactic and preemptive regimens in HSCT and SOT populations. The major anti-herpes agent valacyclovir has also been approved for prophylaxis of renal transplant recipients, or SOTs outside of the US. These drugs have provided major advances in CMV disease management, although they are limited by intolerable toxicities, oral bioavailability and efficacy, and risk of drug resistance with extended use. Several drugs are in early clinical development which may address these limitations; this review will provide an overview of our current arsenal of available drugs, and of those in the early clinical development pipeline.

GSK983: a novel compound with broad-spectrum antiviral activity.

GSK983, a novel tetrahydrocarbazole, inhibits the replication of a variety of unrelated viruses in vitro with EC(50) values of 5-20 nM. Both replication of the adenovirus Ad-5 and the polyoma virus SV-40, and episomal maintenance of human papillomaviruses (HPV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are susceptible to GSK983. The compound does not inhibit all viruses; herpes simplex virus (HSV-1), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and lytic replication of EBV were not susceptible at concentrations below 1 microM. GSK983 does inhibit the growth of cell lines immortalized by HTLV-1, EBV, HPV, SV40 and Ad-5, with EC(50) values in the range of 10-40 nM. Depending on the cell line, the compound induces either apoptosis or cytostasis at concentrations over 20 nM. GSK983 also inhibits cell lines immortalized by non-viral mechanisms, but has little effect on primary cells. The CC(50) values for keratinocytes, fibroblasts, lymphocytes, endothelial, and bone marrow progenitor cells are all above 10 microM. The pattern of inhibition, which includes diverse viruses as well as growth of immortalized cells of varied origins, suggests the target is a host cell protein, rather than a viral protein. Preliminary mechanism studies indicate that GSK983 acts by inducing a subset of interferon-stimulated genes.

Mutations in the human cytomegalovirus UL27 gene that confer resistance to maribavir.

Previous drug selection experiments resulted in the isolation of a human cytomegalovirus (CMV) UL97 phosphotransferase mutant resistant to the benzimidazole compound maribavir (1263W94), reflecting the anti-UL97 effect of this drug. Three other CMV strains were plaque purified during these experiments. These strains showed lower-grade resistance to maribavir than the UL97 mutant. Extensive DNA sequence analyses showed no changes from the baseline strain AD169 in UL97, the genes involved in DNA replication, and most structural proteins. However, changes were identified in UL27 where each strain contained a different mutation (R233S, W362R, or a combination of A406V and a stop at codon 415). The mutation at codon 415 is predicted to truncate the expressed UL27 protein by 193 codons (32% of UL27) with a loss of nuclear localization. The expression of full-length UL27 as a green fluorescent fusion protein in uninfected fibroblasts resulted in nuclear and nucleolar fluorescence, whereas cytoplasmic localization was observed when codons 1 to 415 were similarly expressed. Viable UL27 deletion mutants were created by recombination and showed slight growth attenuation and maribavir resistance in cell culture. Marker transfer experiments confirmed that UL27 mutations conferred maribavir resistance. The UL27 sequence was well conserved in a sample of 16 diverse clinical isolates. Mutation in UL27, a betaherpesvirus-specific early gene of unknown biological function, may adapt the virus for growth in the absence of UL97 activity.

Interactions of 1263W94 with other antiviral agents in inhibition of human cytomegalovirus replication.

Inhibition of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) by 1263W94 was additive dosewise in combination with ganciclovir, acyclovir, and foscarnet. None of the commonly used anti-human immunodeficiency virus agents antagonized the inhibition of HCMV by 1263W94. The data were analyzed by a modified isobologram procedure that measures the strength and statistical significance of drug interactions.

Mechanism of action of the ribopyranoside benzimidazole GW275175X against human cytomegalovirus.

New human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) therapies with novel mechanisms of action are needed to treat drug-resistant HCMV that arises during therapy with currently approved agents. 2-Bromo-5,6-dichloro-1-beta-D-ribofuranosyl-1H-benzimidazole (BDCRB) is an effective anti-HCMV agent with a novel mechanism of action, but problems with in vivo stability preclude clinical development. A D-ribopyranosyl derivative of BDCRB, GW275175X, displays similar antiviral activity without the in vivo stability problems. We present an initial description of the activity of GW275175X against HCMV, other herpesviruses, and selected nonherpesviruses. In addition, we show that it acts as a DNA maturation inhibitor like the parent compound, BDCRB, rather than via the mechanisms of action of 1263W94 or any anti-HCMV drugs approved for marketing. GW275175X is a promising candidate for clinical development as an anti-HCMV agent.

Activities of benzimidazole D- and L-ribonucleosides in animal models of cytomegalovirus infections.

Since human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) does not infect or replicate in nonhuman cells and tissues, there are few animal models currently available for evaluation of antiviral therapies for these infections. In the present studies, we utilized two different models in which severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice were implanted with human fetal tissue that was subsequently infected with HCMV. In one model, human fetal retinal tissue was implanted into the anterior chamber of the SCID mouse eye, and in the second, human fetal thymus and liver (thy/liv) tissues were implanted under the kidney capsule. After the implants were established, they were infected with 2,000 to 9,000 PFU of HCMV. To determine the efficacy of three benzimidazole nucleosides, 2-bromo-5,6-dichloro-(1-beta-D-ribofuranosyl)benzimidazole (BDCRB), GW275175X (175X), and GW257406X (1263W94, maribavir [MBV]) treatment was initiated 24 h after infection of the implants and continued for 28 days. Treatment consisted of either placebo, 25 mg of ganciclovir (GCV)/kg of body weight administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) twice daily, 33 or 100 mg of BDCRB/kg administered i.p. twice daily, or 75 mg of either MBV or 175X/kg administered orally twice daily. GCV was effective in both models, inhibiting HCMV infection by 5- to 3,000-fold. In the retinal tissue model, MBV and BDCRB reduced HCMV replication about fourfold through 21 days postinfection compared with results for the vehicle control. In the thy/liv tissue model, all three benzimidazole nucleosides were effective in inhibiting HCMV replication by approximately 30- to 3,000-fold in comparison to the vehicle control. These data indicate that the benzimidazole nucleosides were efficacious in these animal models and suggest that this class of compounds should be active against the various HCMV infections that occur in the immunocompromised host.

The human cytomegalovirus UL44 protein is a substrate for the UL97 protein kinase.

The human cytomegalovirus UL97 protein is an unusual protein kinase that is able to autophosphorylate and to phosphorylate certain exogenous substrates, including nucleoside analogs such as ganciclovir. However, no natural substrate of UL97 in infected cells has been identified. We report here that recombinant UL44 protein became radiolabeled when incubated with recombinant UL97 and [(32)P]ATP and that both proteins could be coimmunoprecipitated by an antibody that recognizes either protein. Subsequent studies showed that highly purified, recombinant UL97 phosphorylated purified, recombinant UL44. This phosphorylation occurred on serine and threonine residues and was sensitive to inhibition by maribavir and to a mutation that inactivates UL97 catalytic activity. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed the absence of specific phosphorylated forms of UL44 in immunoprecipitates from lysates of cells infected with a UL97 null mutant virus or with wild-type virus in the presence of maribavir. The results indicate that UL97 is sufficient to phosphorylate UL44 in vitro and is necessary for the normal phosphorylation of UL44 in infected cells. This strongly suggests that UL44 is a natural substrate of UL97.

Preclinical and toxicology studies of 1263W94, a potent and selective inhibitor of human cytomegalovirus replication.

1263W94 is a novel benzimidazole compound being developed for treatment of human cytomegalovirus infection. No adverse pharmacological effects were demonstrated in safety pharmacology studies with 1263W94. The minimal-effect dose in a 1-month rat study was 100 mg/kg/day, and the no-effect dose in a 1-month monkey study was 180 mg/kg/day. Toxic effects were limited to increases in liver weights, neutrophils, and monocytes at higher doses in female rats. 1263W94 was not genotoxic in the Ames or micronucleus assays. In the mouse lymphoma assay, 1263W94 was mutagenic in the absence of the rat liver S-9 metabolic activation system, with equivocal results in the presence of the S-9 mix. Mean oral bioavailability of 1263W94 was >90% in rats and approximately 50% in monkeys. Clearance in rats and monkeys was primarily by biliary secretion, with evidence of enterohepatic recirculation. In 1-month studies in rats and monkeys, mean peak concentrations and exposures to 1263W94 increased in near proportion to dose. Metabolism of 1263W94 to its primary metabolite, an N-dealkylated analog, appeared to be mediated via the isozyme CYP3A4 in humans. 1263W94 was primarily distributed in the gastrointestinal tract of rats but did not cross the blood-brain barrier. In monkeys, 1263W94 levels in the brain, cerebrospinal fluid, and vitreous humor ranged from 4 to 20%, 1 to 2%, and <1%, of corresponding concentrations in plasma, respectively. The high level of binding by 1263W94 to human plasma proteins (primarily albumin) was readily reversible, with less protein binding seen in the monkey, rat, and mouse. Results of these studies demonstrate a favorable safety profile for 1263W94.

In vitro activities of benzimidazole D- and L-ribonucleosides against herpesviruses.

Herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), and human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) are responsible for a number of clinical manifestations in both normal and immunocompromised individuals. The parent benzimidazole ribonucleosides evaluated in this series, 2-bromo-5,6-dichloro-1-(beta-D-ribofuranosyl)benzimidazole (BDCRB) and maribavir (1263W94), are potent and selective inhibitors of human CMV replication. These nucleosides act by two different mechanisms. BDCRB blocks the processing and maturation of viral DNA, whereas 1263W94 inhibits the viral enzyme pUL97 and interferes with DNA synthesis. In the present study, we have evaluated the in vitro antiviral activity of BDCRB, an analog, GW275175X (175X), and 1263W94 against the replication of HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, CMV, EBV, HHV-6, and HHV-8. By using various methodologies, significant activity was observed against human CMV and EBV but not against HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, HHV-6, or HHV-8. Plaque reduction assays performed on a variety of laboratory and clinical isolates of human CMV indicated that all strains, including those resistant to ganciclovir (GCV) and foscarnet, were sensitive to all three benzimidazole ribonucleosides, with mean 50% effective concentration values of about 1 to 5 microM compared to that of GCV at 6 microM. The toxicity of these compounds in tissue culture cells appeared to be similar to that observed with GCV. These results demonstrate that the benzimidazole ribonucleosides are active against human CMV and EBV and suggest that they may be useful for the treatment of infections caused by these herpesviruses.

Phosphorylation of beta-D-ribosylbenzimidazoles is not required for activity against human cytomegalovirus.

We have previously reported that 2,5,6-trichloro-1-(beta-D-ribofuranosyl)benzimidazole (TCRB) and its 2-bromo analog (2-bromo-5,6-dichloro-1-(beta-D-ribofuranosy)benzimidazole [BDCRB]) are potent and selective inhibitors of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication that block viral DNA maturation via HCMV gene products UL89 and UL56. To determine if phosphorylation is required for antiviral activity, the in vitro metabolism of BDCRB was examined and the antiviral activities of nonphosphorylatable 5'-deoxy analogs were determined. Reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of extracts from uninfected and HCMV-infected cells incubated with [(3)H]BDCRB revealed two major metabolites. Both were less polar than naturally occurring nucleoside monophosphates, but one peak coeluted with a BDCRB-5'-monophosphate (BDCRB-5'-MP) standard. Further analysis revealed, however, that neither metabolite partitioned with BDCRB-5'-MP on anion-exchange HPLC. Their retention patterns were not affected by incubation with alkaline phosphatase, thereby establishing that the compounds were not nucleoside 5'-monophosphates. Both compounds were detected in uninfected and HCMV-infected cells and in mouse live extracts, but neither has been identified. Like TCRB and BDCRB, the nonphosphorylatable 5'-deoxy analogs were potent and selective inhibitors of HCMV replication. The 5'-deoxy analogs maintained inhibition of HCMV replication upon removal of BDCRB, whereas an inhibitor of DNA synthesis did not. Similar to TCRB, its 5'-deoxy analog (5'-dTCRB) did not affect viral DNA synthesis, but 5'-dTCRB did inhibit viral DNA maturation to genome-length units. Additionally, virus isolates resistant to TCRB were also resistant to 5'-dTCRB and the 5'-deoxy analog of BDCRB. Taken together, these results confirm that TCRB, BDCRB, and their 5'-deoxy analogs have common mechanisms of action and establish that these benzimidazole ribonucleosides, unlike other antiviral nucleosides, do not require phosphorylation at the 5' position for antiviral activity.

Potent and selective inhibition of human cytomegalovirus replication by 1263W94, a benzimidazole L-riboside with a unique mode of action.

Benzimidazole nucleosides have been shown to be potent inhibitors of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replication in vitro. As part of the exploration of structure-activity relationships within this series, we synthesized the 2-isopropylamino derivative (3322W93) of 1H-beta-D-ribofuranoside-2-bromo-5,6-dichlorobenzimidazole (BDCRB) and the biologically unnatural L-sugars corresponding to both compounds. One of the L derivatives, 1H-beta-L-ribofuranoside-2-isopropylamino-5,6-dichlorobenzimidazole (1263W94), showed significant antiviral potency in vitro against both laboratory HCMV strains and clinical HCMV isolates, including those resistant to ganciclovir (GCV), foscarnet, and BDCRB. 1263W94 inhibited viral replication in a dose-dependent manner, with a mean 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) of 0.12 +/- 0.01 microM compared to a mean IC(50) for GCV of 0.53 +/- 0.04 microM, as measured by a multicycle DNA hybridization assay. In a single replication cycle, 1263W94 treatment reduced viral DNA synthesis, as well as overall virus yield. HCMV mutants resistant to 1263W94 were isolated, establishing that the target of 1263W94 was a viral gene product. The resistance mutation was mapped to the UL97 open reading frame. The pUL97 protein kinase was strongly inhibited by 1263W94, with 50% inhibition occurring at 3 nM. Although HCMV DNA synthesis was inhibited by 1263W94, the inhibition was not mediated by the inhibition of viral DNA polymerase. The parent benzimidazole D-riboside BDCRB inhibits viral DNA maturation and processing, whereas 1263W94 does not. The mechanism of the antiviral effect of L-riboside 1263W94 is thus distinct from those of GCV and of BDCRB. In summary, 1263W94 inhibits viral replication by a novel mechanism that is not yet completely understood.