Estimating large carnivore populations at global scale based on spatial predictions of density and distribution - Application to the jaguar (Panthera onca).

Broad scale population estimates of declining species are desired for conservation efforts. However, for many secretive species including large carnivores, such estimates are often difficult. Based on published density estimates obtained through camera trapping, presence/absence data, and globally available predictive variables derived from satellite imagery, we modelled density and occurrence of a large carnivore, the jaguar, across the species' entire range. We then combined these models in a hierarchical framework to estimate the total population. Our models indicate that potential jaguar density is best predicted by measures of primary productivity, with the highest densities in the most productive tropical habitats and a clear declining gradient with distance from the equator. Jaguar distribution, in contrast, is determined by the combined effects of human impacts and environmental factors: probability of jaguar occurrence increased with forest cover, mean temperature, and annual precipitation and declined with increases in human foot print index and human density. Probability of occurrence was also significantly higher for protected areas than outside of them. We estimated the world's jaguar population at 173,000 (95% CI: 138,000-208,000) individuals, mostly concentrated in the Amazon Basin; elsewhere, populations tend to be small and fragmented. The high number of jaguars results from the large total area still occupied (almost 9 million km2) and low human densities (< 1 person/km2) coinciding with high primary productivity in the core area of jaguar range. Our results show the importance of protected areas for jaguar persistence. We conclude that combining modelling of density and distribution can reveal ecological patterns and processes at global scales, can provide robust estimates for use in species assessments, and can guide broad-scale conservation actions.

A retrospective study of pathologic findings in the Amazon and Orinoco river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) in captivity.

River dolphins are especially susceptible to negative human impacts. For their conservation, attempts of relocation or procreation ex situ may become important in the future to avoid their extinction. Additional knowledge and medical experiences of river dolphin management in captivity may aid such conservation efforts. The medical records and necropsy and histopathology reports on 123 captive Amazon River dolphins (Inia geoffrensis) were re-viewed. Of these 123 animals, 105 were necropsied and 70 necropsies were supported with histopathology. Eighteen animals were not necropsied. Among wild-born animals, mortality was highest in the first 2 mo immediately postcapture and transport, accounting for 32 of 123 deaths. Pneumonia and skin lesions (cutaneous and subcutaneous ulcerations and abscesses) were the most common findings, found in 44 of 105 (42%) and 38 of 105 (36%) of gross diagnoses, respectively. At least 10 of 44 cases of pneumonia diagnosed grossly included a verminous component. Cachexia, from a variety of causes, was a major gross finding in 21 animals. Fifteen animals had histologic evidence of significant renal pathology, and this was the primary cause of death in 13 cases. Hepatic pathology was found in 18 cases, and bacterial sepsis was confirmed via histology in 16 cases. Based on these findings, it may be concluded that keys to successful maintenance of this species include 1) prophylactic anthelminthic and antibiotic therapy immediately post-capture; 2) maintenance of animals in larger enclosures than in past attempts, in compatible groups, and in facilities capable of separating aggressive animals; 3) maintenance in microbiologically hygienic water quality at all times; and 4) a proactive program of preventive medicine during the immediate postcapture, quarantine, and maintenance period of captivity.

Relación entre el tamaño de hembra y la producción de huevos en el morrocoy sabanero Geochelone (Chelonoidis) carbonaria (Spix, 1824) en un zoocriadero comercial de Venezuela / Relation between female size and egg production in red-footed tortoise Geochelone (Chelonoidis) carbonaria (Spix, 1824) in a comercial farm in Venezuela / Relacão entre o tamanho da fêmea e a produção de ovos do jabuti-piranga Geochelone (Chelonoidis) carbonaria (spix, 1824) em um zoocriadeiro comercial na Venezuela

A fin de conocer la estrategia reproductiva de Geochelone carbonaria en cuanto a la producción de huevos y su relación con la talla corporal, se seleccionaron tres grupos (I, II, III) de 12 hembras cada uno, con promedios de 364,50; 303,75 y 254,66mm respectivamente, de largo lineal de caparazón. Los especimenes seleccionados fueron mantenidos bajo las mismas condiciones de alimentación y densidad, y su reproducción se evaluó entre mayo 1997 y marzo 1998. Se encontró muy poca variación en el promedio de nidos por grupo, sin observarse tendencia alguna según el tamaño la hembra. El total de huevos por hembra por temporada aumentó con el tamaño de la hembra. En los tres grupos se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en el tamaño del huevo (largos máximo y mínimo, y volumen) y en el tamaño de la nidada, aumentado estas variables con el tamaño de la hembra. La duración de la temporada reproductiva de los tres grupos (I, II y III) fue de 160, 207 y 191 días, respectivamente, sugiriendo que los animales grandes mejoran su aptitud al reducir el tiempo del periodo de anidación. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en el tiempo de incubación según el tamaño del huevo. Los resultados corroboran que esta especie no cumple con la teoría del óptimo tamaño de huevo. Se reporta un récord máximo de ocho nidadas por temporada y un tamaño récord de nidada de 13 huevos.

In order to determine the reproductive strategy of Goechelone carbonaria, inasmuch egg production and its relationship with body size, three groups (I, II, III) of 12 females each were selected, with averages of 364.50, 303.75 and 254.66mm, respectively, in lineal size of the carapace. The selected specimens were kept under similar nutritional and density conditions. The observations were made between May 1997 and March 1998. Very few variations were found with respect to the average number of nests per group, without any tendency in relation to the size of the female. The total number of eggs per female per season increased with female size. Statistically significant differences were found between the three groups with respect to egg size (maximal length, minimal lenght and volume) and nest size, all of which increased together with the female size. The duration of the reproductive season of groups I, II and III was 160, 207 and 191 days, respectively, suggesting that larger animals improve their performance with a reduced nesting season. There were no significant differences in the incubation time according to egg size. The results corroborate that this species does not behave according to the theory of the optimum egg size. A record maximum of 8 nests per season and a record nest size of 13 eggs are reported.

Com o fim de conhecer a estratégia reprodutiva de Geochelone carbonaria quanto à produção de ovos e sua relação com o tamanho corporal, se selecionaram três grupos (I, II, III) de 12 fêmeas cada um, com médias de 364,50; 303,75 e 254,66mm respectivamente, de comprimento lineal da carcaça. Os espécimes selecionados foram mantidos sob as mesmas condições de alimentação e densidade, e sua reprodução se avaliou entre maio 1997 e março 1998. Encontrou-se muito pouca variação na média de ninhos por grupo, sem observar-se tendência alguma segundo o tamanho da fêmea. O total de ovos por fêmea por temporada aumentou com o tamanho da fêmea. Nos três grupos se encontraram diferenças estatisticamente significativas no tamanho do ovo (comprimentos máximo e mínimo, e volume) e no tamanho da ninhada, aumentado estas variáveis com o tamanho da fêmea. A duração da temporada reprodutiva dos três grupos (I, II e III) foi de 160, 207 e 191 dias, respectivamente, sugerindo que os animais grandes melhoram sua atitude ao reduzir o tempo do período de nidificação. Não se encontraram diferenças significativas no tempo de incubação segundo o tamanho do ovo. Os resultados comprovam que esta espécie não cumpre com a teoria do ótimo tamanho de ovo. Relata-se um recorde máximo de oito ninhadas por temporada e um tamanho recorde de ninhada de 13 ovos.