Identity synthesis and confusion in early to late adolescents: Age trends, gender differences, and associations with depressive symptoms.

INTRODUCTION: Research on identity development has primarily studied over-time trends in identity status change and exploration and commitment processes among late adolescents and emerging adults. Identity development in early and mid-adolescents has generally been overlooked. Hence, little is known about how a sense of identity synthesis and confusion evolves from early to late adolescence for boys and girls. METHODS: The present cross-sectional study examined gender-moderated age trends in identity synthesis and confusion from ages 12 to 25 among 5860 Belgian adolescents (56.1% girls; Mage = 16.09). In addition, using a subsample of 2782 participants, we investigated associations of identity synthesis and confusion with depressive symptoms in early, mid-, and late adolescents. RESULTS: Mean scores on identity synthesis decreased from ages 12 to 15, subsequently increased from ages 15 to 23, and decreased again later on. Mean scores on identity confusion followed a parallel but opposite cubic trend. Gender differences in these age trends were dependent upon the developmental period. For all age groups, identity synthesis scores were negatively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas positive associations emerged between identity confusion and depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: From 12 to 25 years old, individuals experience an increasing sense of identity synthesis and less identity confusion, despite fluctuations that appear to be dependent upon the developmental period. Identity synthesis and confusion seem to be strongly negatively and positively associated with depressive symptoms in early, mid-, and late adolescents.

Eating Disorder Symptomatology in Adolescent Boys and Girls: Identifying Distinct Developmental Trajectory Classes.

Eating disorder symptomatology is highly prevalent in adolescence and is regarded one of the most important precursors of clinical eating disorders. The present longitudinal study examined the development of eating disorder symptomatology in adolescents over two years. At Time 1,528 high school students filled out self-report questionnaires (50.5% female; Mage = 15 years). Multivariate latent growth curve modeling and latent class growth analyses were performed to model latent trajectories and to identify latent trajectory classes. Stable trajectories of drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction were found, whereas bulimia and BMI increased over time. Important gender differences pointed to girls experiencing more eating disorder symptoms at each time point. Additionally, more diverse trajectory classes were found in girls than in boys. Finally, classes with the most eating disorder symptoms also experienced the most problems in identity development, internalizing symptoms, and the least effortful control. The present study underscores the importance of identifying vulnerable adolescents that experience greater eating disorder symptomatology, as they also seem to experience the worst psychosocial development.

Identity Structure and Processes in Adolescence: Examining the Directionality of Between- and Within-Person Associations.

Developing a stable and coherent identity structure (i.e., a synthesized sense of self that can support self-directed decision making) represents a lifelong task. A person's identity structure is continually revised through ongoing processes of identity exploration and commitment. However, longitudinal studies linking identity structure to identity processes are largely lacking. The present three-wave longitudinal study among 530 Flemish high school students [50.6% female; Mage = 15; SD = 1.85; age range = 11-19 years] examined the directionality of both between- and within-person associations linking identity synthesis and confusion to identity exploration and commitment processes. Between-person cross-lagged models indicated that adolescents who scored high on identity synthesis relative to their peers also scored high on proactive exploration and commitment processes, and low on ruminative exploration one year later, again relative to their peers. Adolescents who scored high on identity confusion relative to their peers also scored high on ruminative exploration one year later, again relative to their peers. With respect to effects of identity processes on identity structure, adolescents who scored high on identification with commitment relative to their peers also scored low on identity confusion one year later. Within-person cross-lagged models indicated that, when adolescents scored high on identity synthesis relative to their own average score, they reported increased proactive exploration processes one year later. In general, reaching a degree of identity synthesis appears to represent a prerequisite for proactive identity exploration at both the between- and within-person levels.

A brief screener for impairment in personality functioning: Psychometric validation of the Five-Item Screening Scale for Personality Disorders in a Dutch-speaking clinical sample.

Personality disorders (PDs) are characterized by problems with identity and self-direction. Since the recent dimensional PD models of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th edition, the role of identity and self-direction in personality pathology has been made explicitly by including these problems in a general personality pathology criterion. This criterion reflects impairment in personality functioning (IPF), which is assessed on a continuum to determine the severity of personality pathology. The present study aimed to psychometrically evaluate the Five-Item Screening Scale for Personality Disorders (FISSPD; Skodol et al., 2011), a short screener for IPF, in a Dutch-speaking clinical sample of 820 adults. This screener mainly taps into self-related impairment, with four items measuring self-related impairment and one item measuring interpersonal impairment. The factor structure, scale reliability, measurement invariance (across sex, age, and patients with vs. without PD), and convergent validity were investigated. The Dutch FISSPD showed a unidimensional structure and good scale reliability. Scalar measurement invariance was established across sex, age (patients below vs. above age 40), and patients with versus without PD. The Dutch FISSPD was significantly related to identity and all DSM-IV/5 Section-II PD symptoms. The present study indicates that the Dutch FISSPD has potential as a reliable and valid screener for personality pathology in adult patients. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Self-Concept and Identity Measure in Patients with Personality Disorders: A Psychometric Evaluation and Associations With Identity Processes, Core Domains of Self-Functioning, and Personality Disorder Symptoms.

As developmental and clinical research on identity has largely developed in disconnect, scholars recommend adopting a developmental psychopathology perspective on identity, which considers adaptive and pathological identity functioning. Such a perspective has also been introduced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5) Alternative Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD), which suggests that all personality disorders (PDs) are marked by moderate to extreme deficits in self-functioning (i.e., identity and self-direction). The present study aims to validate the Dutch Self-Concept and Identity Measure (SCIM), a 27-item self-report questionnaire that assesses consolidated identity, disturbed identity, and lack of identity, in 153 psychiatric inpatients with PDs (75.2% female; Mage = 31.73). We investigated the factor structure and reliability of the SCIM, and examined associations of SCIM scales with typical identity processes, AMPD domains of self-functioning, and symptoms of all PDs. Results indicated that a 23-item Dutch SCIM produced valid and reliable scores among patients with PDs. Furthermore, SCIM scales were significantly and differentially related to identity commitment processes, ruminative identity exploration, domains of self-functioning, and symptoms of all PDs. Moreover, findings indicated that PDs varied regarding the severity of identity impairment.

Longitudinal development of non-suicidal self-injury disorder in adolescence: Prospective prediction of stability and change by identity development, depression, trauma, and resilience.

BACKGROUND: With the introduction of non-suicidal self-injury disorder (NSSI-D) in DSM-5, the field obtained a standardised set of criteria to study those engaging in more severe and chronic NSSI. To date, no previous research has studied the development of NSSI-D longitudinally, leaving questions on its stability and potential prospective predictors unanswered. METHODS: 2162 community adolescents (M = 15.00 years, SD = 1.88, 53.9 % girls at T1) completed a set of self-report questionnaires for three consecutive years and were classified into three severity-based NSSI subgroups (no-NSSI, subthreshold-NSSI, NSSI-D). Multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to prospectively predict subgroup membership by age, gender, identity development, depressive symptoms, traumatic experiences, and resilience. RESULTS: At baseline, the sample was distributed over the no-NSSI group (88 %), the subthreshold-NSSI (6 %) and NSSI-D (6 %) groups. These groups respectively showed high (93.5 %), low (25 %) and moderate (47.5 %) stability over one-year intervals. Longitudinally, higher levels of identity confusion and trauma significantly increased the likelihood of transitioning to subthreshold-NSSI. Moreover, boys had a higher likelihood of transitioning from NSSI-D to no-NSSI over the course of one year. CONCLUSIONS: This three-year study provides the first indication of the longitudinal course of NSSI-D with the current set of DSM-5 criteria. Clinically, the results suggest the particular potential of identity confusion and trauma as prevention targets in community adolescents.

Trajectories of adaptive and disturbed identity dimensions in adolescence: developmental associations with self-esteem, resilience, symptoms of depression, and borderline personality disorder features.

To advance our understanding of adolescents' identity formation and how it may play into their psychological functioning, this study investigated developmental trajectory classes of adaptive and disturbed dimensions of identity formation, and whether adolescents belonging to different trajectory classes develop differently on self-esteem, resilience, symptoms of depression, and borderline personality disorder (BPD) features. Three-wave longitudinal data from 2,123 Flemish adolescents was used (54.2% girls; Mage = 14.64, range = 12-18 at T1). Results pointed to four trajectory classes of identity formation: adaptive identity, identity progression, identity regression, and diffused identity. The adaptive identity class presented with stable high levels of self-esteem and resilience, and stable low levels of symptoms of depression and BPD, whereas opposite results were obtained for the diffused identity class. The identity progression class reported an increase in self-esteem and resilience as well as a decrease in symptoms of depression and BPD, whereas opposite results were obtained for the identity regression class. These results emphasize that adaptive and disturbed dimensions of identity formation are closely related to markers of well-being and psychopathology among adolescents, and could help identify adolescents with an increased risk for negative psychological functioning or increased opportunity for positive psychological functioning.

A person-centered perspective on the combined DSM-5 AMPD/ICD-11 personality model: Utility, relationship with the categorical personality disorder model, and capacity to differentiate between levels of identity functioning.

Background: Both the ICD-11 classification of Personality Disorders and the DSM-5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders (DSM-5 AMPD) conceptualize personality pathology in a dimensional way, but differ in the way they carve up their respective pathological personality domains. Recently, a combination of ICD-11 and DSM-5 AMPD descriptive pathological personality traits, the Modified Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form Plus (PID5BF + M), was developed. The current study: We investigated the utility of the additional ANANKASTIA domain (not represented in the DSM-5 AMPD) as well as of the additional PSYCHOTICISM domain (not represented in the ICD-11 model) in the identification of meaningful pathological personality domain clusters based on the PID5BF + M. Next to the classical 2- and 3-cluster solutions, we examined whether the presence of the additional ANANKASTIA domain would also gave rise to a meaningful 4-cluster solution. We then validated these clusters by investigating differences between them in mean DSM-5 Section II cluster A, B, and C personality disorder scores. Finally, we investigated whether cluster membership was able to differentiate between levels of identity functioning, a key feature of personality disorder severity in both the ICD-11 model and the DSM-5 AMPD. Materials and methods: We used a Flemish community sample of 242 participants, and applied k-means cluster analyses in a two-step manner on PID5BF + M domains to investigate 2-, 3-, and 4-cluster solutions. We used MANOVAs to examine differences between clusters in PID5BF + M domains, DSM-IV/DSM-5 Section II Assessment of Personality disorders (ADP-IV) cluster A, B, and C scores, and Self-Concept and Identity Measure (SCIM) scores. Results: Cluster analyses on PID5BF + M pathological personality domains (1) revealed meaningful 2-, 3-, and 4-cluster solutions, with the 4-cluster solution explaining the most variance in the clustering variables, (2) allowed to identify a classical Overcontrolled cluster which DSM-5 AMPD PID-5 does not, and (3) demonstrated the utility of representing ANANKASTIA and DISINHIBITON as separate pathological personality domains. PID5BF + M clusters (5) were informative of DSM-5 Section II cluster A, B, and C personality disorder scores and (6) showed different levels of clinical-developmental Identity functioning. Conclusion: Current results demonstrate the utility of a combined ICD-11/DSM-5 AMPD view from a person-centered perspective.

Narrative Coherence of Turning Point Memories: Associations With Psychological Well-Being, Identity Functioning, and Personality Disorder Symptoms.

Individuals develop a narrative identity through constructing and internalizing an evolving life story composed of significant autobiographical memories. The ability to narrate these memories in a coherent manner has been related to well-being, identity functioning, and personality pathology. Previous studies have particularly focused on coherence of life story narratives, overlooking coherence of single event memories that make up the life story. The present study addressed this gap by examining associations between narrative coherence of single turning point memories and psychological well-being, identity functioning, and personality disorder (PD) symptoms among 333 Belgian emerging adults (72.1% female; M age = 22.56, SD = 3.13, age range = 18-30). In addition, the present study tested whether narrative coherence could predict unique variance in PD symptoms above and beyond identity and interpersonal functioning, both considered key components of personality pathology. The findings showed that narrative coherence was not significantly related to psychological well-being, but yielded significant negative associations with disturbed identity functioning and antisocial PD symptoms. Furthermore, narrative coherence predicted unique variance in antisocial PD symptoms above and beyond identity functioning, but did not predict unique variance in borderline and antisocial PD symptoms above and beyond both identity and interpersonal functioning. Collectively, these findings suggest that narrative incoherence within single event memories might be characteristic for disturbed identity functioning and antisocial personality pathology.

Eating Disorder Symptomatology and Identity Formation in Adolescence: A Cross-Lagged Longitudinal Approach.

Introduction: Eating disorder symptomatology, comprising both psychological and behavioral aspects of subclinical eating concerns, constitutes a clear precursor of developing eating disorders. It is crucial to investigate its antecedents and correlates to subsequently inform eating disorder prevention programs. The present study focused on identity formation, a core developmental task in adolescence, that has increasingly been linked to eating disorder development. Our main aim was to examine the temporal sequence between eating disorder symptomatology and identity formation. Methods: Data on eating disorder symptomatology and identity formation were collected in 530 high school students (at Time 1: mean age = 15 years; SD = 1.84; range: 12-18 years; 50.6% females) using self-report questionnaires at three annual measurement points. Cross-lagged structural equation modeling was performed to examine the directionality of effects. Results: Results indicated bidirectional effects between eating disorder symptomatology and identity formation. Identity confusion seemed to increase vulnerability to body dissatisfaction and bulimia symptoms, whereas identity synthesis seemed to protect against their development. Additionally, identity synthesis seemed to protect against the development of drive for thinness as well. At the same time, body dissatisfaction and bulimia symptoms positively predicted identity confusion and negatively predicted identity synthesis over time. Conclusion: The present study adds to the growing body of literature on identity and eating disorders by focusing on their temporal interplay in a community sample of adolescents. As bidirectional effects emerged, a greater emphasis on identity formation in eating disorder prevention programs is advocated.