Trust matters: The Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy in Europe Study.

This article presents the design of a seven-country study focusing on childhood vaccines, Addressing Vaccine Hesitancy in Europe (VAX-TRUST), developed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study consists of (a) situation analysis of vaccine hesitancy (examination of individual, socio-demographic and macro-level factors of vaccine hesitancy and analysis of media coverage on vaccines and vaccination and (b) participant observation and in-depth interviews of healthcare professionals and vaccine-hesitant parents. These analyses were used to design interventions aimed at increasing awareness on the complexity of vaccine hesitancy among healthcare professionals involved in discussing childhood vaccines with parents. We present the selection of countries and regions, the conceptual basis of the study, details of the data collection and the process of designing and evaluating the interventions, as well as the potential impact of the study. Laying out our research design serves as an example of how to translate complex public health issues into social scientific study and methods.

Individual, interpersonal, and organisational factors associated with discrimination in medical decisions affecting people with a migration background with mental health problems: the case of general practice.

OBJECTIVES: Although people with a migration background (MB) have more unmet mental health needs than the general population, patients with a MB are still underrepresented in mental health care services. Provider bias towards these patients has been evidenced repeatedly but its driving factors remain elusive. We assessed the moderating effect of the individual (e.g. age and ethnicity), interpersonal (e.g. healthcare provider trust), and organisational (e.g. perceived workload) factors on general practitioners (GPs) differential decision-making regarding diagnosis, treatment, and referral for a depressed patient with or without a MB. DESIGN: An experimental study was carried out in which GPs were shown one of two video vignettes featuring adult male depressed patients, one with a MB and the other without. Belgian GPs (n = 797, response rate was 13%) had to decide on their diagnosis, treatment, and referral. Analysis of variance and logistic regression were used to analyse the effect of a MB, adding interaction terms for the explanatory variables. RESULTS: Overall, we found that there were ethnic differences in GPs' decisions regarding diagnosis and treatment recommendations. GPs perceived the symptoms of the patient with a MB as less severe (F = 7.68, p < 0.01) and demonstrated a reduced likelihood to prescribe a combination of medical and non-medical treatments (F = 11.55, p < 0.001). Those differences increased in accordance with the GP's age and perceived workload; at an interpersonal level, we found that differences increased when the GP thought the patient was exaggerating his distress. CONCLUSION: This paper showed that lower levels of trust among GPs' towards their migrant patients and high GP workloads contribute to an increased ethnic bias in medical decision-making. This may perpetuate ethnic inequalities in mental health care. Future researchers should develop an intervention to decrease the ethnic inequities in mental health care by addressing GPs' trust in their migrant and ethnic minority patients.

Lack of social support, gender and colorectal cancer screening participation across Europe: How do screening programmes mitigate the effect of social support for men and women?

This study investigates how a lack of social support differentially affects men and women's colorectal cancer (CRC) screening participation, considering different screening strategies implemented across European countries. Although health sociology has stressed gender differences in social support and its effects on health behaviours, this was overlooked by cancer screening research. Using a data set of 65,961 women and 55,602 men in 31 European countries, we analysed the effect of social support variables on CRC screening uptake. We found that living alone and lower perceived social support were associated with lower screening uptake for both men and women. These effects were, however, stronger among men. Population-based screening programmes mitigated these effects, particularly for women, but not for men living alone. In countries with opportunistic screening programmes, social support variables remained associated with screening uptake. We conclude that cancer screening interventions should pay attention to social support and its gender-differentiated effects.

Healthcare Professionals' Discursive Constructions of Parental Vaccine Hesitancy: A Tale of Multiple Moralities.

Healthcare professionals play a crucial role in addressing the concerns of vaccine-hesitant parents since they form a trusted source for vaccine-related information. An increasing body of evidence suggests that healthcare professionals are faced with complexities when navigating the sensitive topic of parental vaccine hesitancy, as they balance their own vaccine- and context-specific concerns with institutional and societal pressures to vaccinate. Furthermore, health choices, such as parental choices for childhood vaccination, are often linked to moralisation. Given the emphasis on effective communication with vaccine-hesitant parents in the patient-centred care literature, it is important to consider healthcare professionals' interpretations of parental vaccine hesitancy. Hence, a deeper understanding of how healthcare professionals make sense of, and moralise, childhood vaccination can help us understand how moralisation might appear in their communication with hesitant parents (in)directly. Drawing on a critical social-psychological framework for discourse analysis, this study analyses 39 semi-structured interviews with healthcare professionals in Flanders, Belgium, and presents the discursive patterns articulated by healthcare professionals on parental vaccine hesitancy. The findings elucidate how healthcare professionals perpetuate, or resist, moral discourse in their accounts of vaccine hesitancy by constructing five different interpretative repertoires, that is, a "good" or "bad" parenting repertoire, a freedom of choice repertoire, an individual risk-benefit repertoire, a public health repertoire, and an accessibility repertoire. Our study highlights the complexities healthcare professionals experience in negotiating vaccine hesitancy, as their understandings of vaccine hesitancy are affected by, and contribute to, existing moral dilemmas and dominant discourses surrounding health and parenting.

Study design: The social wellbeing of newly-arrived adolescent migrants in reception education in Flanders (socNAMs).

AIMS: socNAMs provides a comprehensive and comparative dataset for researchers to identify how students' recent migration and their school setting relates to their social wellbeing, particularly regarding their feelings of loneliness. Results: This study design article delineates a quantitative cross-sectional research study (socNAMs) which successfully developed three questionnaires that were administered with unique and hard to reach populations, newly-arrived adolescent migrants (NAMs) and school staff offering reception education in Flanders, Belgium. METHODS: At the individual level, socNAMs collected information on: (1) socio-demographic variables of NAMs; (2) migration and family context; (3) social relationships; (4) school experiences; (5) self-perceived wellbeing (physical and social); and (6) experiences with discrimination. The questionnaire developed for NAMs is available in 16 languages. To gain a further understanding of the impact of the school environment on NAMs, socNAMs collected contextual information primarily concerning school social capital by including data collected from teachers and reception-class coordinators. The final sample included 1379 NAMs, 50 teachers and 26 reception-class coordinators, from 35 schools offering reception education. CONCLUSIONS: In this article, we present the rationale for this study, the methodology of sampling and recruitment, the development and content of the questionnaires, some preliminary descriptive results and the strengths and limitations of the study. Future empirical studies will address the research aims outlined in this protocol paper. In addition, we highlight the opportunities that the dataset provides for advancing research regarding the social wellbeing of NAMs in varying school and national contexts.

Cervical cancer (over-)screening in Europe: Balancing organised and opportunistic programmes.

AIMS: Cervical cancer (CC) over-screening has been understudied in Europe, yet is relevant for approaching inequalities in screening uptake. Focusing on countries' screening strategies (opportunistic systems versus organised programmes), we assess in which contexts CC over-screening is more prevalent, and which women are more likely to have engaged in cervical cancer screening (CCS) within the past year. METHODS: A two-level (multilevel) design among screening women (N = 80,761) nested in 31 European countries was used to analyse data from the second wave (2013-2015) of the European Health Interview Survey. We focused on over-screening, defined as screening more frequently than the three-yearly screening interval prescribed in the European guidelines - that is, having screened within the past year. RESULTS: Higher levels of over-screening were observed in opportunistic systems compared to systems with organised programmes. In opportunistic systems, women with a higher socioeconomic position had a higher likelihood of being screened within the past year than their socioeconomic counterparts. Moreover, these differences diminished under organised programmes. CONCLUSIONS: Contexts with organised CCS programmes are more efficiently reducing over-screening, and enforcing the European guidelines. We suggest that the physician-patient relationship is an essential pathway for explaining socioeconomic differences in CC (over-)screening and for future interventions.

Recruiting a Hard-to-Reach, Hidden and Vulnerable Population: The Methodological and Practical Pitfalls of Researching Vaccine-Hesitant Parents.

While recruitment is an essential aspect of any research project, its challenges are rarely acknowledged. We intend to address this gap by discussing the challenges to the participation of vaccine-hesitant parents defined here as a hard-to-reach, hidden and vulnerable population drawing on extensive empirical qualitative evidence from seven European countries. The difficulties in reaching vaccine-hesitant parents were very much related to issues concerning trust, as there appears to be a growing distrust in experts, which is extended to the work developed by researchers and their funding bodies. These difficulties have been accentuated by the public debate around COVID-19 vaccination, as it seems to have increased parents' hesitancy to participate. Findings from recruiting 167 vaccine-hesitant parents in seven European countries suggest that reflexive and sensible recruitment approaches should be developed.

Addressing cultural topics during psychotherapy: Evidence-based do's and don'ts from an ethnic minority perspective.

OBJECTIVE: Broaching-i.e., a counsellor's effort to install meaningful conversations in psychotherapy concerning one's cultural identity-is a strong predictor of positive treatment outcomes and client satisfaction, especially for minority-identified clients. Despite this understanding, the broaching literature has struggled to translate broaching principles into practical recommendations for specific behaviours and skills. The current study therefore explores the effects of broaching approaches by the therapist (i.e., direct, indirect and avoidant approach) about cultural topics including ethnicity, religion, gender expression and socioeconomic status on clients' perception of (1) the multicultural orientation of the therapist and (2) the frequency of microaggressions during therapy. METHOD: These research questions were investigated in a sample of ethnic minority clients (N = 231) who followed at least one session of mental healthcare counselling during the last 12 months. RESULTS: Findings show that indirect broaching is the overall most favourable approach, whilst avoidant broaching is consistently negatively associated with all therapy-related outcome measures. CONCLUSION: The results lay the basis for practical guidelines for broaching in psychotherapy, and provide counsellors with a foundation for having cultural conversations in an effective and respectful manner.

Unintentional Discrimination Against Patients with a Migration Background by General Practitioners in Mental Health Management: An Experimental Study.

Populations with a migration background have a higher prevalence of mental health problems than their native counterparts. They are also more likely to have unmet medical needs and are less frequently referred to mental health services. One potential explanation for this is that physicians, such as general practitioners (GPs), may unintentionally discriminate against migrant patients, particularly when they lack humanization. To date, no experimental study has investigated this hypothesis. This paper assesses the influence of humanization on GPs' discriminatory decisions regarding migrant patients with depression. A balanced 2 × 2 factorial experiment was carried out with Belgian GPs (N = 797) who received video-vignettes depicting either a native patient or a migrant patient with depression. Half of the respondents were exposed to a text that humanized the patient by providing more details about the patient's life story. Decisions related to diagnosis, treatment and referral were collected, as well as the time spent on each video and text, and were analysed using ANOVA. Migrant patients' symptoms were judged to be less severe than those of native patients (F = 7.71, p < 0.05). For almost all treatments, the decision was less favourable for the migrant patient. Humanization had little effect on medical decisions. We observed that GPs spent significantly more time on the vignette with the humanization intervention, especially for the migrant patients. The results indicate that ethnic differences in the management of depression persist in primary care. Humanization, however, does not mitigate those differences in medical decisions.

Mind the Gate: General Practitioner's Attitudes Towards Depressed Patients with Diverse Migration Backgrounds.

This study aims to examine (a) whether there are differences in general practitioners' (GPs) attitudes towards native Belgian patients, patients of foreign descent and asylum seeking patients who all express symptoms of major depression, and (b) whether these differences depend on GPs' experience with cultural competency training and interethnic contact. Using a video vignette study among 404 Flemish (Belgium) GPs, we find evidence of a provider bias. While GPs regard a patient of foreign descent as less trustworthy and less able to adhere to medical recommendations than a native Belgian patient, they also hold more pessimistic views on a potential recovery of an asylum seeking patient. In addition, we find that cultural competency training might alter GPs' attitudes of asylum seeking patients in a positive way. Summarized, our research highlights the need to target stereotypes among GPs for interventions designed to reduce migration-based disparities in healthcare use and health status.

Cervical cancer screening programs and their context-dependent effect on inequalities in screening uptake: a dynamic interplay between public health policy and welfare state redistribution.

BACKGROUND: While organized and opportunistic cervical cancer screening (CCS) programs implemented across the European Union have increased participation rates, barriers to socioeconomically deprived women remain substantial, implying high levels of inequality in CCS uptake. AIM: This study assesses how the screening strategy (as a score based on the availability of organized population-based CCS programs), accessibility of the healthcare system (as an index of out-of-pocket expenditure as a proportion of total healthcare costs, public health expenditure as a percentage of total GDP, and general practitioner (GP) density per 10'000 inhabitants) and social protection (as a decommodification index), impact education- and income-based inequalities in CCS uptake. METHODS: A two-level design with 25-64-year-old women (N = 96'883), eligible for Pap smear screening, nested in 28 European countries, was used to analyze data from the European Health Interview Survey's second wave, using multilevel logistic regression modelling. RESULTS: Clear educational and income gradients in CCS uptake were found, which were smaller in countries with organized CCS programs, higher accessibility of the healthcare system and a higher level of decommodification. Furthermore, three-way interaction terms revealed that these gradients were smaller when organized CCS programs were implemented in countries with better accessibility of the healthcare system or a high level of decommodification. CONCLUSION: This study indicates that the combination of organized screening and high accessibility of the healthcare system or social protection is essential for having lower levels of inequality in CCS uptake. In such countries, the structural threshold for poorer and lower educated women to engage in CCS is lower. This may be explained by them having a better interaction with their GP, who may convince them of the screening test, lower out-of-pocket payments, and financial support to buffer against a disadvantageous position on the labor market.

Perceived group discrimination based on one's gender and the gender gap in depression in Europe.

BACKGROUND: Gender discrimination is one of the most significant psychosocial stressors. This study examined whether the relationship between perceived group discrimination against one's gender (PGD) and the gender gap depression varied by societal levels of gender inequality. METHODS: The current study used data from three waves (2006, 2012 and 2014) of the European Social Survey and applied multilevel linear regression methods. We assessed depressive feelings through the eight-item version of the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. The sample contained 71,419 respondents living in 22 countries. RESULTS: While only a small percentage of people were confronted with PGD, this group consistently reported more depressive feelings. PGD had a similar effect on the mental health of men and women, except for men in more gender-egalitarian societies. When confronted with PGD, the latter group reported more depressive feelings in comparison to men in more gender unequal societies. CONCLUSIONS: Our research found a strong association between PGD and depression. In addition, this relationship varied by societal levels of gender equality. More pronounced gender equality strengthened this relationship in men. Research that ignores this social context might, therefore, be limited in terms of generalization.

The COVID-19 International Student Well-being Study.

As a large international consortium of 26 countries and 110 higher-education institutions (HEIs), we successfully developed and executed an online student survey during or directly after the initial peak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 International Student Well-being Study (C19 ISWS) is a cross-sectional multicountry study that collected data on higher-education students during the COVID-19 outbreak in the spring of 2020. The dataset allows description of: (1) living conditions, financial conditions, and academic workload before and during the COVID-19 outbreak; (2) the current level of mental well-being and effects on healthy lifestyles; (3) perceived stressors; (4) resources (e.g., social support and economic capital); (5) knowledge related to COVID-19; and (6) attitudes toward COVID-19 measures implemented by the government and relevant HEI. The dataset additionally includes information about COVID-19 measures taken by the government and HEI that were in place during the period of data collection. The collected data provide a comprehensive and comparative dataset on student well-being. In this article, we present the rationale for this study, the development and content of the survey, the methodology of data collection and sampling, and the limitations of the study. In addition, we highlight the opportunities that the dataset provides for advancing social science research on student well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic in varying policy contexts. Thus far, this is, to our knowledge, the first cross-country student well-being survey during the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in a unique dataset that enables high-priority socially relevant research.

Never and under cervical cancer screening in Switzerland and Belgium: trends and inequalities.

BACKGROUND: Research on inequalities in cervical cancer screening (CCS) participation has overlooked the distinction between 'never-' and 'under-screeners' while different socioeconomic and demographic determinants may underlie 'non-' and 'under-' screening participation. This study examines socioeconomic and demographic inequalities in never and under CCS participation. We compare cross-national prevalence and trends among these two groups in Switzerland and Belgium, two countries with similar opportunistic CCS strategy but different healthcare systems. METHODS: Data on 38,806 women aged 20-70 from the Swiss Health Interview Survey (1992-2012) and 19,019 women aged 25-64 from the Belgian Health Interview Survey (1997-2013), both population-based cross-sectional nationally representative surveys, was analysed. Weighted adjusted prevalence ratios were estimated with multivariate Poisson regressions. RESULTS: Over the studied period, never screening prevalence was about 15% in both Switzerland and Belgium and under screening prevalence about 14.0%. Socioeconomic gradients were found among both never- and under-screeners. Higher income women had lower never and under screening prevalence in Switzerland and a similar gradient in education was observed in Belgium. Importantly, distinct socioeconomic and demographic determinants were found to underlie never and under screening participation. Never screening was significantly higher among foreign nationals in both countries and this association was not observed in under screening. Never screening prevalence was lower among older age groups, while under screening increased with older age. Over time, age inequalities diminished among never- and under- screeners in Switzerland while educational inequalities increased among never-screeners in Belgium. CONCLUSION: Findings revealed that determinants of screening inequalities differed among never- and under-screeners and hence these should be addressed with different public health strategies. Crucially, socioeconomic and demographic inequalities were more pronounced among never-screeners who appeared to face more structural and persistent inequalities. Differences between the two countries should also be noted. The more liberal-type Swiss healthcare systems appeared to shape income-related screening inequalities, while education appeared to be a stronger determinant of never- and under-screening in Belgium.

Cervical cancer (over)screening in Belgium and Switzerland: trends and social inequalities.

BACKGROUND: Cervical cancer screening (CCS) by means of Pap smears has led to a decrease in cervical cancer incidence and mortality. In the absence of organized programmes, CCS is opportunistic in Belgium and Switzerland. This might result in a high level of CCS overuse, as screening practices do not conform to the recommended 3-yearly screening interval and the target age-ranges (Belgium: 25-64, Switzerland: 20-70). This study aimed to assess trends in CCS uptake and overuse in Belgium and Switzerland and their social determinants, in the light of reimbursement initiatives, which were implemented in both countries. METHODS: Data from five waves of the Belgian Health Interview Survey (1997-2013) (N=11 141) and Swiss Health Interview Survey (1992-2012) (N=32 696) were used. We performed Poisson regressions to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (APR), controlled for socio-economic and socio-demographic characteristics and health status. CCS overuse was operationalized as screening more than once every 3 years and screening above recommended age-range. RESULTS: CCS uptake remained relatively stable over time, with a mean coverage of 70.9% in Belgium and 73.1% in Switzerland. Educational and income gradients were found in both countries. Concerning CCS overuse, women above screening-eligible age showed consistently high screening rates, but screening within the past year declined significantly in both countries, matching the temporal implementation of the reimbursement initiatives. CONCLUSIONS: Although no increase in CCS coverage could be established, CCS has become more efficient in both countries as Pap smear overuse at the population level has declined after the implementation of reimbursement measures tackling CCS overuse.

Early predictors of impaired sleep: a study on life course socioeconomic conditions and sleeping problems in older adults.

Objectives: This study aimed to assess how childhood socioeconomic conditions are associated with sleeping problems in older adults and how this association may be mediated by socioeconomic conditions across the lives of individuals using a life course perspective. Since the life course opportunities differ systematically between men and women, attention was given to gender differences in the association.Methods: Data from 23,766 individuals aged over 50 years of the longitudinal Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) were used. Logistic mixed-effect models were estimated to examine the associations between childhood socioeconomic conditions and the presence of sleeping problems.Results: For women, the analyses showed an association between childhood socioeconomic conditions and sleeping problems. For men, only current socioeconomic conditions were found to be relevant for sleep. The importance of childhood socioeconomic conditions for sleeping problems did not affect the evolution of sleeping problems over ageing.Conclusion: In this study no empirical support was found for processes of cumulative advantage/disadvantage or age-as-leveler. However, childhood does seem to be a critical period for the sleep of women, because the association with childhood socioeconomic conditions remains even when the circumstances later in life are considered. These findings, in particular the gender differences in the association, underline the importance of tracking life course patterns in the study of sleeping problems in older adults.

Assessing Provider Bias in General Practitioners' Assessment and Referral of Depressive Patients with Different Migration Backgrounds: Methodological Insights on the Use of a Video-Vignette Study.

Although the prevalence of common mental health conditions such as depression and anxiety, is higher among people with a migration background, these groups are generally underrepresented in all forms of institutionalized mental health care. At the root of this striking discrepancy might be unequal referral by health care practitioners. In this article we describe the development of a quasi-experimental video vignette methodology to assess potential forms of unequal diagnosing, treatment and referral patterns, based on clients' migration background and asylum status. The presented methodology also allows to explore whether potential differences are related to provider bias, i.e. underlying attitudes and expectations held by general practitioners. Potential assets and drawbacks of this methodology are discussed in detail.

The impact of regional screening policies on the diffusion of cancer screening participation in Belgium: time trends in educational inequalities in Flanders and Wallonia.

BACKGROUND: We investigate whether the extent of educational inequalities in the use of Pap smears (cervical cancer screening) and mammograms (breast cancer screening) in Belgium has changed over time in accordance with the pattern predicted by diffusion of innovation theory, as well as how the regional cancer screening policies of Flanders and Wallonia influence this pattern. METHODS: Data were obtained from five successive cross-sectional waves (1997-2001-2004-2008-2013) of the Belgian Health Interview Survey. Final sample sizes consisted of 8988 women aged 25-64 years for cervical cancer screening and 4194 women aged 50-69 years for breast cancer screening. We calculated absolute and relative measures of inequality, more specifically, the slope index of inequality (SII) and the relative index of inequality (RII), and their development over time. RESULTS: In both Flanders and Wallonia, mammogram use increased greatly between 1997 and 2013, while Pap smear use has remained quite stable over time. Educational inequalities in cervical-cancer screening have been largely persistent over time in both regions. In contrast, educational inequalities in breast cancer screening fluctuated more between 1997 and 2013. Between 1997 and 2001, when the breast cancer screening programme was implemented in Flanders, RII reduced significantly by 45%. Inequality measures did not change significantly in Wallonia, where it is known that most women are screened opportunistically outside the programme. CONCLUSIONS: By focussing on Belgium, this study demonstrates that regional variations in the support of a national screening programme can result in regional variations in the pattern of diffusion for cancer screening, as well as to the development of inequalities in cancer screening participation. Moreover, the findings demonstrate that high visibility and awareness of the screening programme, as was more the case in Flanders than it was in Wallonia, are required in order to reduce or eliminate educational inequalities in cancer screening participation over time. General practitioners and gynaecologists can play a decisive role in this regard.

At the coalface of collaborative mental health care: A qualitative study of governance and power in district-level service provision in South Africa.

Globally, there is an urgency to address fragmented mental health systems, especially in low-to-middle income countries. State and non-state mental health service collaboration is a central strategy to strengthen care. The study was undertaken to analyse the power in governance processes of public mental health service provision. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with state and non-state actors in mental health care in a South African district. Transcriptions were thematically analysed using the Framework for Assessing Power in Collaborative Processes. Findings suggested that collaborative processes were significantly state-owned, in terms of funding models, administrative and legislative jurisdiction, and state hierarchical referral structure. No formal agreements were in place, elevating the importance of key network actors to bring less-endowed NGOs into the service network. Fragmentation between the Departments of Health and Social Development was telling in district forums. Resistance to power structures unfolded, some participants sidestepping traditional hierarchies to leverage funding and support. The paper highlights the complexities and different facets of power in integrated mental health care in a South African district, adding to growing literature on the social mechanisms that influence collaboration.

Who donates? Cross-country and periodical variation in blood donor demographics in Europe between 1994 and 2014.

BACKGROUND: Ageing European populations put pressure on national blood supplies, increasing the need for blood and donor base rejuvenation. Therefore, we investigate how European countries' blood donor populations differ and how they have evolved over the last 2 decades. Previous comparative research, based on 1994 Eurobarometer data, indicate that the typical donor is an educated, middle-aged, white, married male. Other sociodemographic and socioeconomic correlates, such as employment status and type of community, are less clear. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Multilevel analyses are performed on repeated cross-level data from the Eurobarometer (waves 1994, 2002, 2009, and 2014) to compare information on "ever having donated" across sociodemographic categories, countries, and periods. RESULTS: There are consistent but moderate country and period differences. The donor population rose to become largest in most countries by 2009, and stabilized thereafter. Over the studied period, donors were more likely to be higher educated, married men. Nevertheless, changes across time in donor profiles within countries did occur. Women were less likely to donate blood, especially in Southern and Eastern Europe, but this gender gap has declined. Furthermore, educational attainment seems more relevant for women, although, more recently, to a lesser extent. CONCLUSION: Although there is a promising trend in which women, young people, and students are increasingly likely to donate, more attention is needed to reach the unemployed and the low to medium educated. Because the unemployed may lack structural opportunities to donate, and the low to medium educated may lack relevant knowledge on blood donation necessity, we recommend providing practical opportunities and information on the necessity of blood donation.