Synthesis and Antibacterial Activity of Difluoromethyl Cinnamoyl Amides.

Series of novel amides of isoferulic acid, where the phenolic hydroxyl was replaced by a difluoromethyl group, were synthesized and their in vitro antibacterial activities assayed against fourteen bacterial strains (six Gram-positive and eight Gram-negative). A one-pot methodology was developed to obtain the 3'-(difluoromethyl)-4'-methoxycinnamoyl amides using Deoxofluor® as a fluorinating agent. The N-isopropyl, N-isopentyl, and N-(2-phenylethyl) amides 11b, 11d and 11g were the most active and selective against Mycobacterium smegmatis (MIC = 8 µg/mL) with 11b and 11g displaying negligible or no cytotoxicity against HepG2 and A549 cells. Thirteen analogs of N-isopropylamide 11b were also synthesized and their antibacterial activity assayed. Results show that the difluoromethyl moiety enhanced antibacterial activity and selectivity towards M. smegmatis, changing the microorganism inhibition profile of the parent compound. The selectivity exhibited by some of the compounds towards M. smegmatis makes them potential leads in the search for new narrow spectrum antibiotics against M. tuberculosis.

Liver X receptor-α activation enhances cholesterol secretion in lactating mammary epithelium.

Liver X receptors (LXRs) are ligand-dependent transcription factors activated by cholesterol metabolites. These receptors induce a suite of target genes required for de novo synthesis of triglycerides and cholesterol transport in many tissues. Two different isoforms, LXRα and LXRß, have been well characterized in liver, adipocytes, macrophages, and intestinal epithelium among others, but their contribution to cholesterol and fatty acid efflux in the lactating mammary epithelium is poorly understood. We hypothesize that LXR regulates lipogenesis during milk fat production in lactation. Global mRNA analysis of mouse mammary epithelial cells (MECs) revealed multiple LXR/RXR targets upregulated sharply early in lactation compared with midpregnancy. LXRα is the primary isoform, and its protein levels increase throughout lactation in MECs. The LXR agonist GW3965 markedly induced several genes involved in cholesterol transport and lipogenesis and enhanced cytoplasmic lipid droplet accumulation in the HC11 MEC cell line. Importantly, in vivo pharmacological activation of LXR increased the milk cholesterol percentage and induced sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (Srebp1c) and ATP-binding cassette transporter a7 (Abca7) expression in MECs. Cumulatively, our findings identify LXRα as an important regulator of cholesterol incorporation into the milk through key nodes of de novo lipogenesis, suggesting a potential therapeutic target in women with difficulty initiating lactation.

Synthesis and activity evaluation of a series of cholanamides as modulators of the liver X receptors.

The Liver X receptors (LXRs) are members of the nuclear receptor family, that play fundamental roles in cholesterol transport, lipid metabolism and modulation of inflammatory responses. In recent years, the synthetic steroid N,N-dimethyl-3ß-hydroxycholenamide (DMHCA) arised as a promising LXR ligand. This compound was able to dissociate certain beneficial LXRs effects from those undesirable ones involved in triglyceride metabolism. Here, we synthetized a series of DMHCA analogues with different modifications in the steroidal nucleus involving the A/B ring fusion, that generate changes in the overall conformation of the steroid. The LXRα and LXRß activity of these analogues was evaluated by using a luciferase reporter assay in BHK21 cells. Compounds were tested in both the agonist and antagonist modes. Results indicated that the agonist/antagonist profile is dependent on the steroid configuration at the A/B ring junction. Notably, in contrast to DMHCA, the amide derived from lithocholic acid (2) with an A/B cis configuration and its 6,19-epoxy analogue 4 behaved as LXRα selective agonists, while the 2,19-epoxy analogues with an A/B trans configuration were antagonists of both isoforms. The binding mode of the analogues to both LXR isoforms was assessed by using 50 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Results revealed conformational differences between LXRα- and LXRß-ligand complexes, mainly in the hydrogen bonding network that involves the C-3 hydroxyl. Overall, these results indicate that the synthetized DMHCA analogues could be interesting candidates for a therapeutic modulation of the LXRs.

Live cell imaging unveils multiple domain requirements for in vivo dimerization of the glucocorticoid receptor.

Glucocorticoids are essential for life, but are also implicated in disease pathogenesis and may produce unwanted effects when given in high doses. Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) transcriptional activity and clinical outcome have been linked to its oligomerization state. Although a point mutation within the GR DNA-binding domain (GRdim mutant) has been reported as crucial for receptor dimerization and DNA binding, this assumption has recently been challenged. Here we have analyzed the GR oligomerization state in vivo using the number and brightness assay. Our results suggest a complete, reversible, and DNA-independent ligand-induced model for GR dimerization. We demonstrate that the GRdim forms dimers in vivo whereas adding another mutation in the ligand-binding domain (I634A) severely compromises homodimer formation. Contrary to dogma, no correlation between the GR monomeric/dimeric state and transcriptional activity was observed. Finally, the state of dimerization affected DNA binding only to a subset of GR binding sites. These results have major implications on future searches for therapeutic glucocorticoids with reduced side effects.

Destabilization of the torsioned conformation of a ligand side chain inverts the LXRß activity.

BACKGROUND: Liver X receptors (LXRs) are transcription factors activated by cholesterol metabolites containing an oxidized side chain. Due to their ability to regulate lipid metabolism and cholesterol transport, they have become attractive pharmacological targets. LXRs are closely related to DAF-12, a nuclear receptor involved in nematode lifespan and regulated by the binding of C-27 steroidal acids. Based on our recent finding that the lack of the C-25 methyl group does not abolish their DAF-12 activity, we evaluated the effect of removing it from the (25R)-cholestenoic acid, a LXR agonist. METHODS: The binding mode and the molecular basis of action of 27-nor-5-cholestenoic acid were evaluated using molecular dynamics simulations. The biological activity was investigated using reporter gene expression assays and determining the expression levels of endogenous target genes. The in vitro MARCoNI assay was used to analyze the interaction with cofactors. RESULTS: 27-Nor-5-cholestenoic acid behaves as an inverse agonist. This correlates with the capacity of the complex to better bind corepressors rather than coactivators. The C-25 methyl moiety would be necessary for the maintenance of a torsioned conformation of the steroid side chain that stabilizes an active LXRß state. CONCLUSION: We found that a 27-nor analog is able to act as a LXR ligand. Interestingly, this minimal structural change on the steroid triggered a drastic change in the LXR response. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Results contribute to improve our understanding on the molecular basis of LXRß mechanisms of action and provide a new scaffold in the quest for selective LXR modulators.

Synthetic DAF-12 modulators with potential use in controlling the nematode life cycle.

Dafachronic acids (DAs) are 3-keto cholestenoic acids bearing a carboxylic acid moiety at the end of the steroid side chain. These compounds interact with the DAF-12 receptor, a ligand-dependent transcription factor that acts as a molecular switch mediating the choice between arrest at diapause or progression to reproductive development and adult lifespan in different nematodes. Recently, we reported that the 27-nor-Δ4-DA was able to directly activate DAF-12 in a transactivation cell-based luciferase assay and rescued the Mig phenotype of daf-9(rh50) Caenorhabditis elegans mutants. In the present paper, to investigate further the relationship between the structure of the steroid side chain and DAF-12 activity, we evaluated the in vitro and in vivo activity of Δ4-DA analogues with modified side chains using transactivation cell-based assays and daf-9(dh6) C. elegans mutants. Our results revealed that introduction of a 24,25-double bond on the cholestenoic acid side chain did not affect DAF-12 activity, whereas shortening the side chain lowered the activity. Most interestingly, the C24 alcohol 24-hydroxy-4-cholen-3-one (6) was an antagonist of the DAF-12 receptor both in vitro and in vivo.

Exploring the molecular basis of action of ring D aromatic steroidal antiestrogens.

Salpichrolides are natural plant steroids that contain an unusual six-membered aromatic ring D. We recently reported that some of these compounds, and certain analogs with a simplified side chain, exhibited antagonist effects toward the human estrogen receptor (ER), a nuclear receptor whose endogenous ligand has an aromatic A ring (estradiol). Drugs acting through the inhibition or modulation of ERs are frequently used as a hormonal therapy for ER(+) breast cancer. Previous results suggested that the aromatic D ring was a key structural motif for the observed activity; thus, this modified steroid nucleus may provide a new scaffold for the design of novel antiestrogens. Using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation we have modeled the binding mode of the natural salpichrolide A and a synthetic analog with an aromatic D ring within the ERα. These results taken together with the calculated energetic contributions associated to the different ligand-binding modes are consistent with a preferred inverted orientation of the steroids in the ligand-binding pocket with the aromatic ring D occupying a position similar to that observed for the A ring of estradiol. Major changes in both dynamical behavior and global positioning of H11 caused by the loss of the ligand-His524 interaction might explain, at least in part, the molecular basis of the antagonism exhibited by these compounds. Using steered MD we also found a putative unbinding pathway for the steroidal ligands through a cavity formed by residues in H3, H7, and H11, which requires only minor changes in the overall receptor conformation.

27-Nor-Δ(4)-dafachronic acid is a synthetic ligand of Caenorhabditis elegans DAF-12 receptor.

27-Nor-Δ(4)-dafachronic acid was prepared in nine steps and 14% overall yield by two sequential 2-carbon homologations from 20ß-carboxyaldehyde-4-pregnen-3-one. Its activity was evaluated in vivo, where it rescued the Mig phenotype of daf-9(rh50) Caenorhabditis elegans mutants and restored their normal resistance to oxidative stress. 27-Nor-Δ(4)-dafachronic acid was also able to directly bind and activate DAF-12 in a transactivation cell-based luciferase reporter assay, although it was less active than the corresponding 25R-and 25S dafachronic acids. The binding mode of the 27-Nor steroid was studied by molecular dynamics using a homology model of the CeDAF-12 receptor.

The Caenorhabditis elegans DAF-12 nuclear receptor: structure, dynamics, and interaction with ligands.

A structure for the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the DAF-12 receptor from Caenorhabditis elegans was obtained from the X-ray crystal structure of the receptor LBD from Strongyloides stercoralis bound to (25R)-Δ(7)-dafachronic acid (DA) (pdb:3GYU). The model was constructed in the presence of the ligand using a combination of Modeller, Autodock, and molecular dynamics (MD) programs, and then its dynamical behavior was studied by MD. A strong ligand binding mode (LBM) was found, with the three arginines in the ligand binding pocket (LBP) contacting the C-26 carboxylate group of the DA. The quality of the ceDAF-12 model was then evaluated by constructing several ligand systems for which the experimental activity is known. Thus, the dynamical behavior of the ceDAF-12 complex with the more active (25S)-Δ(7)-DA showed two distinct binding modes, one of them being energetically more favorable compared with the 25R isomer. Then the effect of the Arg564Cys and Arg598Met mutations on the (25R)-Δ(7)-DA binding was analyzed. The MD simulations showed that in the first case the complex was unstable, consistent with the lack of transactivation activity of (25R)-Δ(7)-DA in this mutant. Instead, in the case of the Arg598Met mutant, known to produce a partial loss of activity, our model predicted smaller effects on the LBM with a more stable MD trajectory. The model also showed that removal of the C-25 methyl does not impede the simultaneous strong interaction of the carboxylate with the three arginines, predicting that 27-nor-DAs are putative ceDAF-12 ligands.

Insights into estrogen receptor alpha modulation by cholestenoic acids.

Oxysterols are a family of over 25 cholesterol metabolites naturally produced by enzymatic or radical oxidation. They are involved in many physiological and pathological pathways. Although their activity has been mainly attributed to the modulation of the Liver X Receptors (LXR), it is currently accepted that oxysterols are quite promiscuous compounds, acting at several targets at the same time. The promiscuity of the oxysterols with the Estrogen Receptor α (ERα) is crucial in several pathologies such as ER+ breast cancer, inflammation and atherosclerosis. Regarding this matter, we have previously reported the synthesis, LXR activity and binding mode of a family of cholestenoic acid analogs with a modified side chain. Here we report the transcriptional activity on the ERα triggered by these compounds and details on the molecular determinants involved in their activities in order to establish structure-activity relationships to shed light over the molecular basis of the promiscuity of these compounds on ER/LXR responses. Our results show that 3ß-hydroxy-5-cholestenoic acid can interact with the ERα receptor in a way similar to 26-hydroxycholesterol and is an agonist of the receptor. Using molecular dynamics simulations, we were able to predict the ERα activity of a set of cholestenoic acid analogs with changes in the flexibility and/or steric requirements of the side chain, some of which exhibited selective activation of ERα or LXR.

Biological activity and ligand binding mode to the progesterone receptor of A-homo analogues of progesterone.

The biological activity of two seven-membered A-ring (A-homo) analogues of progesterone was evaluated by transactivation assays in Cos-1 cells and by determination of Bcl-x(L) expression levels in T47D cells. The results show that both compounds act as selective progesterone receptor (PR) agonists but lack mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activity. Molecular modelling using semiempirical AM1 and ab initio HF/6-31G** calculations, showed that the A-ring of the A-homo steroids may adopt five different conformations, although only three correspond to low energy conformers. The low energy conformers of each analogue were introduced into the ligand binding pocket of the PR ligand binding domain (LBD) obtained from the PR LBD-progesterone crystal structure. The steroid binding mode was then analyzed using 10 ns of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The PR LBD-progesterone complex was also simulated as a control system. The MD results showed that both A-homo steroids have one conformer that may be properly recognized by the PR, in agreement with the observed progestagen activity. Moreover, the simulation revealed the importance of a water molecule in the formation of a hydrogen bonding network among specific receptor residues and the steroid A-ring carbonyl.

Antiproliferative activity of synthetic naphthoquinones related to lapachol. First synthesis of 5-hydroxylapachol.

A series of 5-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinones analogues was synthesized from juglone (6) and their antiproliferative activity against a representative panel of six human solid tumor cell lines has been investigated. The 2,5-dihydroxy-3-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)naphthalene-1,4-dione (4) and 2,3-dihydro-5-hydroxy-2-(prop-1-en-2-yl)naphtho[2,3-b]furan-4,9-dione (27) were the most potent antiproliferative agents with GI(50) values of 0.42-8.1 and 0.80-2.2microM, respectively. The results provide insight into the correlation between some structural properties of 5-hydroxynaphthoquinones and their antiproliferative activity.

Cholestenoic acid analogues as inverse agonists of the liver X receptors.

Liver X Receptors (LXRs) are ligand dependent transcription factors activated by oxidized cholesterol metabolites (oxysterols) that play fundamental roles in the transcriptional control of lipid metabolism, cholesterol transport and modulation of inflammatory responses. In the last decade, LXRs have become attractive pharmacological targets for intervention in human metabolic diseases and thus, several efforts have concentrated on the development of synthetic analogues able to modulate LXR transcriptional response. In this sense, we have previously found that cholestenoic acid analogues with a modified side chain behave as LXR inverse agonists. To further investigate the structure-activity relationships and to explore how cholestenoic acid derivatives interact with the LXRs, we evaluated the LXR biological activity of new analogues containing a C24-C25 double bond. Furthermore, a microarray assay was performed to evaluate the recruitment of coregulators to recombinant LXR LBD upon ligand binding. Also, conventional and accelerated molecular dynamics simulations were applied to gain insight on the molecular determinants involved in the inverse agonism. As LXR inverse agonists emerge as very promising candidates to control LXR activity, the cholestenoic acid analogues here depicted constitute a new relevant steroidal scaffold to inhibit LXR action.

Structure-activity relationships of neuroactive steroids acting on the GABAA receptor.

The term "neuroactive steroid" (NAS) refers to steroids which, independent of their origin, are capable of modifying neural activities. These steroids positively or negatively modulate the function of members of the ligand-gated ion channel superfamily. Those with positive allosteric actions on the gamma-amino butyric acid type A receptor (GABAA receptor) have been shown to be potent anticonvulsants, anxiolytics, and antistress agents and to possess sedative, hypnotic, and anesthetic activities. New types of neuroactive steroids have been widely sought and structural modifications of the naturally occurring metabolites allopregnanolone, pregnanolone and allotetrahydrodeoxycorticosterone, have been examined in the light of the vast family of GABA receptor subtypes within the brain. Here we review the structure-activity relationship (SAR) of neuroactive steroid analogues obtained by modification of the steroid nucleus, including substitutions at the A, B, C, and D rings and the side chain, with emphasis on the different pharmacophores proposed.

Synthesis and GABA(A) receptor activity of 2,19-sulfamoyl analogues of allopregnanolone.

The synthesis of new analogues of allopregnanolone with a bridged sulfamidate ring over the beta-face of ring A has been achieved from easily available precursors, using an intramolecular aziridination strategy. The methodology also allows the synthesis of 3alpha-substituted analogues such as the 3alpha-fluoro derivative. GABA(A) receptor activity of the synthetic analogues was evaluated by assaying their effect on the binding of [(3)H]flunitrazepam and [(3)H]muscimol. The 3alpha-hydroxy-2,19-sulfamoyl analogue and its N-benzyl derivative were more active than allopregnanolone for stimulating binding of [(3)H]flunitrazepam. For the binding of [(3)H]muscimol, both synthetic analogues and allopregnanolone stimulated binding to a similar extent, with the N-benzyl derivative exhibiting a higher EC(50). The 3alpha-fluoro derivative was inactive in both assays.

Synthesis and biological activity of fluorinated analogues of the DAF-12 receptor antagonist 24-hydroxy-4-cholen-3-one.

The DAF-12 receptor is a ligand-activated transcription factor that in its ligand-bound form allows the expression of target genes needed to support the reproductive life cycle of the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, whereas unbound DAF-12 receptor leads to the developmentally arrested "dauer larvae", specialized for survival and dispersal. The endogenous ligands of the DAF-12 receptor are 3-keto-cholestenoic acids dubbed dafachronic acids. In a previous publication we reported that oxysterols with a shorter side chain (C24) modulate the DAF-12 receptor activity either as partial agonists or, in the case of the C24 alcohol 24-hydroxy-4-cholen-3-one, as an antagonist both in vitro and in vivo. Preliminary structure-activity relationships suggested that this activity profile could be improved with more lipophilic and less acidic functional groups at the end of the side chain. Thus, we have now synthesized two fluorine containing analogues in which the C-24 hydroxyl was replaced by a difluoromethyl group (regarded as a "lipophilic hydroxyl") or a difluoromethylidene group with similar lipophilicity but lacking the hydrogen bond donor capacity. Activity was evaluated in vitro using transactivation cell-based assays and in vivo by the effect on the development of wild-type C. elegans. The 24-difluoromethyl analogue retained the antagonist activity in vitro, being completely devoid of agonist activity and exhibited improved activity in vivo. The difluoromethylidene showed a slight antagonist tendency in vitro (statistically not significant), in the concentration range tested and was weakly active in vivo. None of the compounds were toxic, as treated worms recovered to normal development, when transferred to fresh media without added steroids.

Exploring the molecular basis of action of the passive antiglucocorticoid 21-hydroxy-6,19-epoxyprogesterone.

21-Hydroxy-6,19-epoxyprogesterone (21OH-6,19OP) is a selective antiglucocorticoid that lacks the bulky substituent at C-11 found in active antagonists of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Ligand-free GR ligand-binding domain (LBD) and GR LBD complexed with 21OH-6,19OP or the agonist dexamethasone were simulated during 6 ns using molecular dynamics. Results suggest that the time fluctuation and average position adopted by the H1-H3 loop affect the ability of GR LBD-21OH-6,19OP complex to homodimerize, a necessary step in transcriptome assembly. A nuclear localization and a transactivation experiment showed that, although 21OH-6,19OP activates the translocation of the GR, the nuclear complex is unable to induce the transcription of a reporter driven by a promoter, that requires binding to a GR homodimer to be activated. These findings support the hypothesis that the passive antagonist mode of action of 21OH-6,19OP resides, at least in part, in the incapacity of the GR-21OH-6,19OP complex to dimerize.

Synthesis and GABA(A) receptor activity of oxygen-bridged neurosteroid analogs.

Three analogs of neuroactive steroids were prepared (4-6) in which 1,11- or 11,19-oxygen bridges give a constrained conformation. Their 3D structures were obtained by ab initio calculations and in the case of 3alpha-hydroxy-11,19-epoxypregn-4-ene-20-one (4), confirmed by X-ray analysis. Biological activity of the synthetic steroids was assayed in vitro using t-[(3)H]butylbicycloorthobenzoate as radiolabeled ligand for the GABA(A) receptor. The activity of compound 4 was similar to that of allopregnanolone (1). 1alpha,11alpha-Epoxypregnanolone (6) was more active than pregnanolone (2).

21-Hydroxy-6,19-epoxyprogesterone: A Promising Therapeutic Agent and a Molecular Tool for Deciphering Glucocorticoid Action.

Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones that exert most of their effects through their binding to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), a ligand regulated transcription factor. Although glucocorticoids are widely used in the clinic, their usage in chronic therapies provokes severe adverse reactions. In the quest for safer glucocorticoids a dissociated model was established that proposes a disconnection between GR activated pathways responsible of desired pharmacological effects and pathways involved in adverse GR reactions. Under this model, a myriad of steroidal and non-steroidal compounds has been characterized, with most of them still producing side effects. X-ray crystallographic studies followed by molecular dynamics analysis led research to insights on the receptor Ligand Binding Domain (LBD), which undergoes specific ligand dependent conformational changes that influence receptor activities. In this sense, the flexibility of the ligand structure would contribute to the final GR outcome. Here, we review different data of 21-hydroxy-6,19-epoxyprogesterone (21OH-6,19OP), a rigid steroid with potential pharmaceutical interest due to its anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities, lacking several GR adverse reactions. The rigid structure endows this compound with an enhanced selectivity towards GR. Molecular characterization of the GR/21OH-6,19OP complex revealed specific intermediate conformations adopted by the receptor that would explain the influence on GR dimerization and the recruitment of a specific set of GR transcription modulators. We summarize recent data that will contribute to understand the complexity of glucocorticoid response.

Mapping the Dynamics of the Glucocorticoid Receptor within the Nuclear Landscape.

The distribution of the transcription machinery among different sub-nuclear domains raises the question on how the architecture of the nucleus modulates the transcriptional response. Here, we used fluorescence fluctuation analyses to quantitatively explore the organization of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in the interphase nucleus of living cells. We found that this ligand-activated transcription factor diffuses within the nucleus and dynamically interacts with bodies enriched in the coregulator NCoA-2, DNA-dependent foci and chromatin targets. The distribution of the receptor among the nuclear compartments depends on NCoA-2 and the conformation of the receptor as assessed with synthetic ligands and GR mutants with impaired transcriptional abilities. Our results suggest that the partition of the receptor in different nuclear reservoirs ultimately regulates the concentration of receptor available for the interaction with specific targets, and thus has an impact on transcription regulation.