Real-life isoniazid and rifampicin plasma concentrations in children: a tool for therapeutic drug monitoring of tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: Low plasma levels of first-line antitubercular drugs can be counted among the main causes of poor response to antitubercular therapy, and therapeutic drug monitoring has been proposed as a method to promote tailored treatments for both child and adult patients. The main aim of the study was to evaluate serum concentrations of isoniazid (INH) and rifampicin (RIF) and to investigate reasons for sub-therapeutic plasma concentrations in order to fix dosages. METHODS: Children with TB were prospectively enrolled from January to August 2019. Two venous blood samples were collected (the first at least 15 days after the beginning of antitubercular treatment, and the second between 1 and 8 weeks later). Plasma concentrations were determined by a validated high-performance liquid chromatography method. RESULTS: In all, 45 children were included. Seventy blood samples for INH plasma concentration were collected between 120 and 240 min after drug intake. Adjusting for dose (mg/kg/day) and time of INH administration, when considering three different age groups (≤ 2 years, 2-12 years, > 12 years), a statistically significant lower INH plasma concentration was observed in younger children compared to the older age groups in the multivariate analysis (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001). A total of 68 blood samples were evaluated for RIF concentrations. Both for INH and RIF a statistically significant lower plasma concentration was also observed in adolescents (p < 0.001). Fifteen children (15/45, 33%) presented drug concentrations under the referral therapeutic range. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our findings, monitoring patients' drug plasma concentrations in children under 2 years of age and in adolescents can make treatment more patient-tailored.

Voriconazole treatment in adults and children with hematological diseases: can it be used without measurement of plasma concentration?

Indication and timing of trough plasma-voriconazole (VCZ)-concentration (t-PVC) measurement during VCZ treatment is a debated issue. Patterns of t-PVC were prospectively evaluated in pediatric (50 courses) and adult (95 courses) hematologic patients. Efficacy patterns were defined: adequate, t-PVC always ≥1 mcg/ml; borderline, at least one t-PVC measurement <1 mcg/ml but median value of the measurements ≥1 mcg/ml; inadequate, median value of the measurements <1 mcg/ml. Toxicity patterns were defined: favorable, t-PVC always ≤5 mcg/ml; borderline, one or more t-PVC measurements >5 mcg/ml but median value of the measurements ≤5 mcg/ml; unfavorable, median value of the measurements >5 mcg/ml. In children and adults the mean t-PVCs were higher during intravenous treatments. The t-PVC efficacy pattern was adequate, borderline and inadequate in 48%, 12%, and 40% of courses, respectively, in children, and in 66.3%, 16.8%, and 16.8% of courses, respectively, in adults. Adequate efficacy pattern was more frequent in children with body weight above the median (≥25 kg) (OR 4.8; P = .011) and in adults with active hematological disease receiving intravenous therapy (OR 3.93; P = .006). Favorable toxicity pattern was more frequent in children receiving VCZ daily dosage below the median (<14 mg/kg) (OR 4.18; P = .027) and in adults with body weight below the median (<68 kg) (OR 0.22; P = .004). T-PVC measurement is generally needed, however, a non t-PVC guided approach may be considered in heavier adults receiving intravenous VCZ. The risk of supratherapeutic levels does not seem an absolute indication for t-PVC monitoring.

Posaconazole oral suspension primary prophylaxis in acute leukemia and allogeneic stem cell transplant patients: can it be used without measurement of plasma concentration?

Posaconazole oral suspension (PCZ-susp) can display a variable degree of inter and intra-individual absorption. However, there is no agreement on the need of plasma-posaconazole-concentration (PPC) monitoring as a routine practice in patients receiving PCZ-susp. In this prospective, multicenter study we evaluated the variability of PPCs in hematologic patients receiving PCZ-susp prophylaxis with the aim to define conditions at different risk of subtherapeutic PPCs. Overall, 103 acute leukemia (AL) patients submitted to intensive chemotherapy (115 courses) and 46 allogeneic stem cell transplant (allo-SCT) recipients (47 courses) receiving PCZ-susp prophylaxis were considered. The adequacy of PPC pattern after the steady state (≥day 7 of treatment) in courses with two or more PPC measurements was defined as follows: inadequate pattern: PPC < 0.5 mcg/ml at least once; borderline pattern: PPC always ≥0.5mcg/ml but < 0.7 mcg/ml at least once; adequate pattern: PPC always ≥0.7 mcg/ml. The PPC pattern was evaluable in 83 and 37 AL and allo-SCT patients, respectively. It was adequate, borderline and inadequate in 63.9%, 14.5%, and 21.7% of courses, respectively, in AL, and in 62.2%, 10.8%, and 27.0% of courses, respectively, in allo-SCT. In both groups, an inadequate PPC pattern was associated with the development of diarrhea. In absence of diarrhea, the probability of an inadequate PPC pattern was 11.9% in AL and 17.2% in allo-SCT patients. PCZ-susp might be used without stringent need of PPC monitoring in patients without diarrhea.

Drug repositioning: auranofin as a prospective antimicrobial agent for the treatment of severe staphylococcal infections.

Auranofin, (AF), a gold(I) complex in clinical use for the therapy of rheumatoid arthritis, is reported here to produce remarkable bactericidal effects in vitro against Staphylococcus sp. Noticeably, a similar antimicrobial action and potency are also noticed toward a few methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains but not toward Escherichia coli. The time and concentration dependencies of the antimicrobial actions of AF have been characterized through recording time kill curves, and a concentration dependent profile highlighted. Overall, the present results point out that auranofin might be quickly and successfully repurposed for the treatment of severe bacterial infections due to resistant Staphylococci.

Prospective phase II single-center study of the safety of a single very high dose of liposomal amphotericin B for antifungal prophylaxis in patients with acute myeloid leukemia.

Some preclinical and pharmacokinetic studies suggested the variable safety and the potential efficacy of an antifungal prophylaxis with a single high dose of liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB) in high-risk patients. An open-label, prospective study was conducted with 48 adults receiving induction chemotherapy for acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Patients received a single infusion of 15 mg/kg of body weight L-AmB and, eventually, a second dose after 15 days of persistent neutropenia. The primary objective was tolerability and safety. Efficacy was also evaluated as a secondary endpoint. A pharmacokinetic study was performed with 34 patients in order to evaluate any association of plasma L-AmB levels with toxicity and efficacy. Overall, only 6 patients (12.5%) reported Common Toxicity Criteria (CTC) grade 3 hypokalemia, which was corrected with potassium supplementation in all cases, and no patient developed clinically relevant nephrotoxicity. Mild infusion-related adverse events occurred after 6 of 53 (11.3%) total infusions, with permanent drug discontinuation in only one case. Proven invasive fungal disease (IFD) was diagnosed in 4 (8.3%) patients. The mean AmB plasma levels at 6 h, 24 h, and 7 days after L-AmB administration were 160, 49.5, and 1 mg/liter, respectively. The plasma AmB levels were higher than the mean values of the overall population in 3 patients who developed CTC grade 3 hypokalemia and did not significantly differ from the mean values of the overall population in 3 patients who developed IFD. Our experience demonstrates the feasibility and safety of a single 15-mg/kg L-AmB dose as antifungal prophylaxis in AML patients undergoing induction chemotherapy.

Variability of pharmacokinetic parameters in patients receiving different dosages of daptomycin: is therapeutic drug monitoring necessary?

Pharmacokinetic studies of daptomycin in septic patients indicate that pharmacokinetic parameters may be altered. The purpose of this clinical investigation is to determine the pharmacokinetics of daptomycin in a population of hospitalized patients with clinically significant gram-positive infections and receiving daptomycin. Daptomycin was measured using an isocratic HPLC technique. Thirty-five patients suffering from gram-positive severe infections and receiving daptomycin were included in the study. Patients were divided into two groups, depending on the dose of daptomycin received: group A, including 24 patients receiving 6 mg/kg/day daptomycin and group B, 11 patients receiving 8 mg/kg/day. Patients receiving a daptomycin dosage of 8 mg/kg/day had significantly higher values of mean C max and AUC0-24. Each group was further divided into three subgroups, according to the creatinine clearance (CrCl) values: (1) patients with a CrCl >80 ml/min, (2) patients with CrCl ranging between 80 and 40 ml/min, and (3) patients with CrCl <40 ml/min. Compared to patients with normal renal function, those with CrCl <40 ml/min had higher mean values of minimum concentration (C min) (p < 0.001), AUC0-24 (p = 0.03), and prolonged plasma half-time (p < 0.001). These differences were present both in patients receiving 6 and those with 8 mg/kg/day. However, in each of the three subgroups with different degrees of renal function a marked variability of pharmacokinetics parameters was observed. The factors associated with increased mortality were an infection acquired in the ICU, hypoalbuminemia, and AUC/MIC <666. The marked variability that characterizes daptomycin pharmacokinetics in these patients suggest the monitoring of the main pharmacokinetic parameters in this clinical setting.

Linezolid pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile in critically ill septic patients: intermittent versus continuous infusion.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are significantly altered in critically ill septic patients and the risk of prolonged periods with concentrations below the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and of low area under the serum concentration-time curve/MIC (AUC/MIC) ratios is of concern. We compared the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) profile of linezolid administered by intermittent or continuous infusion in critically ill septic patients. Patients were divided into two groups: intermittent infusion (Group I) (600mg/12h); or continuous infusion (Group C) (300mg intravenous loading dose +900mg continuous infusion on Day 1, followed by 1200mg/daily from Day 2). Linezolid serum levels were monitored for 72h and microbiological data were collected. The clinical outcome was monitored. Sixteen patients completed the study. MICs of susceptible pathogens were 2mg/L for 80% of the isolates. In Group I, linezolid trough serum levels (C(min)) varied widely and were below the susceptibility breakpoint (4mg/L) during the study period; in 50% of patients C(min) was <1mg/L. In Group C, mean linezolid serum levels were more stable and, starting from 6h, were significantly higher than C(min) levels observed in Group I and were always above the susceptibility breakpoint. Time that the free drug concentration was above the MIC (T(free)>MIC) of>85% was more frequent in Group C than in Group I (P<0.05). Finally, with continuous infusion it was possible to achieve AUC/MIC values of 80-120 more frequently than with intermittent infusion (P<0.05). According to PK/PD parameters, continuous infusion has theoretical advantages over intermittent infusion in this population of patients.

Auranofin and its Analogues Show Potent Antimicrobial Activity against Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens: Structure-Activity Relationships.

Due to the so-called "antibiotic resistance crisis" new antibacterial agents are urgently sought to treat multidrug-resistant pathogens. A group of gold- or silver-based complexes, of general formula [M(PEt3 )X] (with M=Au or Ag, and X=Cl, Br or I), alongside with three complexes bearing a positive or negative charge-[Au(PEt3 )2 ]Cl, K[Au(CN)2 ] and [Ag(PEt3 )2 ]NO3 -were prepared and comparatively tested with auranofin on a representative panel of pathogens including Gram-positive, Gram-negative and Candida strains. Interestingly, all the gold and silver complexes tested were active on Gram-positive strains, with the gold complexes having greater efficacy. The effects of the gold compounds were potentiated to a larger extent than silver compounds when tested in combination with a permeabilizing agent. A number of relevant structure-activity relationships emerged from the comparative analysis of the observed antibacterial profiles, shedding new light on the underlying molecular mechanisms of the action of these compounds.

Valganciclovir for congenital CMV infection: a pilot study on plasma concentration in newborns and infants.

The pharmacokinetics of valganciclovir were studied in 8 infants ranging in age from 4 to 90 days (mean 20 days). We suggest that doses of 15 mg/kg given twice daily may be suitable for neonates and young infants.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic aspects of antimicrobial agents for the treatment of uncomplicated urinary tract infections.

Uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTI) are treated with beta-lactams, co-trimoxazole, quinolones and fosfomycin tromethamine. Due to increasing resistance of causative pathogens, antibiotics should be used by considering their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic characteristics. beta-lactams have time-dependent activity and should not be used once-daily. Co-trimoxazole should be restricted due to increasing chemoresistance. Fluoroquinolones play a primary role in the treatment of serious and complicated infections. Fosfomycin tromethamine is active against most urinary tract pathogens. In vitro time-kill kinetics of fosfomycin against Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis showed primarily concentration-dependent activity, with a prolonged post-antibiotic effect (3.4 to 4.7h). Based on these results a single 3g dose of fosfomycin guarantees optimal efficacy against common uropathogens with an AUC(urine)/MIC ratio of 500.

Linezolid extracorporeal removal during haemodialysis with high cut-off membrane in critically ill patients.

Continuous venovenous haemodialysis with high cut-off membrane (HCO-CVVHD) is often used in critically ill septic patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) to sustain renal function and to remove circulating inflammatory mediators. The aim of this study was to analyse the extracorporeal removal of linezolid and related alterations in pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) parameters during HCO-CVVHD. Three critically ill septic patients with AKI, treated with linezolid and HCO-CVVHD, were prospectively observed. To calculate the extracorporeal clearance of linezolid and the PK parameters, effluent, pre-filter and post-filter samples were contemporaneously collected before linezolid infusion, just after 1-h infusion (maximum serum concentration; C(max)), at 3 h and 6 h after dosing, and before the next dose (trough serum concentration; C(min)). Linezolid C(max) and C(min) (pre-filter) ranged from 10.4-23.5 mg/L and from 2.9-10.3 mg/L. The dialysate saturation coefficient was 0.66-0.85 and the extracorporeal clearance with a diffusive dose of 35 m L/kg/h ranged from 2.1-2.5 L/h. Total linezolid clearance was between 1.7 L/h and 6.3 L/h. The total area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC0-∞) ranged from 95.1 mgh/L to 352.9 mgh/L, in accordance with the different clinical conditions. AUCfree/MIC ratios were always <85 for an MIC of 4.0 mg/L, and two of three patients did not reach the optimal PK/PD target of ≥85 even when using an MIC of 2.0 mg/L. Although extracorporeal clearance may affect linezolid total clearance, the clinical features of critically ill septic patients appear to be mainly responsible for the high variability of linezolid serum concentrations.

Management of Meningitis Caused by Multi Drug-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii: Clinical, Microbiological and Pharmacokinetic Results in a Patient Treated with Colistin Methanesulfonate.

This paper reports on a 71- year-old Caucasian male who underwent neurosurgery for an oligodendroglioma, followed by a cranial-sinus fistula and cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea. The clinical course was complicated due to an extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii meningitis. The patient was treated with colistin methanesulfonate, intrathecal for 24 days and intravenous for 46 days. In addition, the patient received meropenem and teicoplanin to treat a urinary tract infection and a bacterial aspiration pneumonia. Cerebrospinal fluid trough colistin levels resulted above the MIC of A. baumannii. Colistin cerebrospinal fluid concentration did not increase over the treatment period. Meningitis was cured and A. baumannii eradicated. No side effects from the antimicrobial therapy were observed. In conclusion, this case highlights the issues in treating infections caused by resistant Gram negative bacteria and supports previous findings on the efficacy, pharmacokinetic and tolerability of intravenous and intrathecal colistin treatments.

Daptomycin serum levels in critical patients undergoing continuous renal replacement.

BACKGROUND: Daptomycin pharmacokinetics has not been extensively studied in patients undergoing continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT). METHODS: The aim of the study was to collect pharmacokinetics and clinical data of patients undergoing CRRT and receiving daptomycin therapy. Daptomycin was measured using an isocratic high-performance liquid chromatography technique. RESULTS: Three patients with bloodstream infection underwent CVVHD and three CVVHDF. CVVHDF patients had significantly lower mean AUC(0-24) and C(max) values. A significant decrease in plasma levels was observed in a CVVHDF patient using 'high cut-off' hemofilters. CONCLUSION: Increasing doses of daptomycin should be considered in critical patients, especially those undergoing CVVHDF.

Candida glabrata prosthetic hip infection.

We present a case of a 60-year-old Caucasian woman carrying a 2-year-old hip prosthesis infected by Candida glabrata dose-dependent susceptible to fluconazole and voriconazole. Resection arthroplasty was performed. Six weeks of caspofungin plus liposomal amphotericin combination therapy achieved joint sterilization and allowed a successfully reimplantation arthroplasty. In addition we review 9 cases of C. glabrata prosthetic joint infection described to date in the literature.

Rapid and sensitive LC-MS/MS method for the analysis of antibiotic linezolid on dried blood spot.

Linezolid is a new drug from the oxazolidinone class of antibiotics used against mycobacteria and multi-drug resistant (MDR) Gram-positive bacterial infections, which may are also glycopeptide-resistant. The drug usage in pediatric age needs an accurate drug monitoring for effective patient management. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of dried blood spot (DBS) specimens to determinate linezolid levels during treatment. Advantages of DBS include short collection time, low invasiveness, ease and low cost of sample collection, transport and storage. The analysis was performed in LC-MS/MS operating in positive ion mode and multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. The calibration curve in matrix was linear in the concentration range of 1-100 mg/L with correlation coefficient value of 0.9987. Intraday and interday coefficients of variation were within 3.6% and 13.0%, respectively. We also tested the thermal and temporal drug stability in dried blood spots at four different temperatures to evaluate the risks of sample delivery in different conditions. The short term stability studies showed that linezolid concentration remained stable for at least one month under all the conditions tested. This new assay has favorable characteristics being highly precise and accurate and allows a fast linezolid analysis with a total run time 22 min long, in gradient analysis. Concentration data for plasma and DBS samples from patients after treatment were compared showing a good correlation. Correlation between DBS data and serum samples measured by HPLC-UV was satisfactory. The benefit for patients is the ability to monitor the treatment with a simple and convenient sample collection at home.

Pharmacokinetic study of gemcitabine, given as prolonged infusion at fixed dose rate, in combination with cisplatin in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Although some studies have suggested that gemcitabine delivered as a fixed dose rate (FDR) infusion of 10 mg/m(2)/min could be more effective than when administered as the standard 30-min infusion, the available pharmacokinetic data are still too limited to draw definitive conclusions. This study is aimed to investigate the plasmatic and intracellular pharmacokinetics of gemcitabine given as FDR at doses of 600 and 1,200 mg/m(2) in combination with 75 mg/m(2) of cisplatin in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. PATIENTS AND METHOD: The patients were divided into two groups receiving different initial doses of the drug: 4 patients received 600 mg/m(2) gemcitabine 60-min i.v. infusion and 4 patients 1,200 mg/m(2) gemcitabine 120-min i.v. infusion both as a FDR of 10 mg/m(2)/min on days 1 and 8 of a 21-day cycle (at first cycle). At the second cycle, all patients were treated with gemcitabine at 1,200 mg/m(2) 120-min i.v. infusion (FDR of 10 mg/m(2)/min) on days 1 and 8 of a 21-day cycle. At each cycle, gemcitabine was administered alone on day one, and in combination with 75 mg/m(2) of cisplatin on day 8. Plasmatic and intracellular pharmacokinetic analyses were performed on blood samples collected at defined time points before, during and after gemcitabine infusion. RESULTS: The plasmatic pharmacokinetic parameters were clearly different when the patients received a higher gemcitabine dose in the second cycle compared to the lower dose of the first course; in the same time, the intracellular drug levels were not modified. Comparing the pharmacokinetic parameters of different patients treated at different dose levels, the results appeared to be quite similar. CONCLUSIONS: A substantially higher accumulation of metabolites in peripheral blood mononuclear cells was observed when the longer infusion time was employed, suggesting a pharmacological advantage for this treatment schedule.

Ertapenem peritoneal fluid concentrations in adult surgical patients.

Ertapenem, a novel carbapenem, is approved for the treatment of mild to severe intra-abdominal infections (IAIs), although its in vivo concentrations in peritoneal fluid are unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the peritoneal fluid concentration of ertapenem after a single 1 g intravenous dose. After informed consent, 21 patients (9 females and 12 males; mean+/-standard deviation (S.D.) age 50.2+/-17.7 years) requiring intra-abdominal surgery were enrolled. Plasma and peritoneal fluid samples were taken at fixed times during surgery. Drug concentrations were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet detection. Mean+/-S.D. ertapenem peritoneal fluid concentrations were 64.3+/-23.4 mg/L at 1h and 31.3+/-26.5 mg/L at 3 h after administration. The mean tissue/plasma ratio ranged from 46.7% to 83.1%. The mean peritoneal fluid concentrations were well above the MIC(90) (minimum inhibitory concentration for 90% of the organisms) for susceptible bacteria found in IAIs, especially Escherichia coli, viridans streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae, Klebsiella spp. and Bacteroides fragilis, during the entire sampling time. These pharmacokinetic results support the assumption that ertapenem might be suitable for the treatment of IAIs.