Vitamin A deficiency and determinants of vitamin A status in Bangladeshi children and women: findings of a national survey.

OBJECTIVE: Using data from the national micronutrients survey 2011-2012, the present study explored the status of subclinical vitamin A nutrition and the underlying determinants in the Bangladeshi population. DESIGN: A nationwide cross-sectional study. Settings The survey covered 150 clusters; fifty in each of rural, urban and slum strata. SUBJECTS: Three population groups: (i) pre-school age children (6-59 months; PSAC); (ii) school age children (6-14 years; SAC); and (iii) non-pregnant non-lactating women (15-49 years; NPNLW). RESULTS: National prevalence of subclinical vitamin A deficiency was 20·5, 20·8 and 5·3 % in PSAC, SAC and NPNLW, respectively. Slum populations had higher prevalence compared with urban (PSAC: 38·1 v. 21·2 %, P0·05 for differences in ß between <3 months v. 3-6 months, 6-9 months and 9-12 months). CONCLUSIONS: Prevalence of subclinical vitamin A deficiency was high in children in Bangladesh. Intakes of animal-source foods and leafy vegetables were associated with higher and lower retinol status, respectively. Increased food diversity through animal-source foods is required.

Determinants of iron status and Hb in the Bangladesh population: the role of groundwater iron.

OBJECTIVE: Using data from the national micronutrients survey 2011-2012, the present study explored the determinants of Fe status and Hb levels in Bangladesh with a particular focus on groundwater Fe. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study conducted at the nationwide scale. Settings The survey was conducted in 150 clusters, fifty in each of the three strata of rural, urban and slum. SUBJECTS: Three population groups: pre-school age children (6-59 months; PSAC), school age children (6-14 years; SAC) and non-pregnant non-lactating women (15-49 years; NPNLW). RESULTS: National prevalence of Fe deficiency was 10·7 %, 7·1 % and 3·9-9·5 % in PSAC, NPNLW and SAC, respectively. Prevalence of anaemia was 33·1 % (PSAC), 26·0 % (NPNLW) and 17·1-19·1 % (SAC). Multivariate regression analyses showed that the area with 'predominantly high groundwater Fe' was a determinant of higher serum ferritin levels in NPNLW (standardized ß=0·19; P=0·03), SAC (standardized ß=0·22; P=0·01) and PSAC (standardized ß=0·20; P=0·03). This area also determined higher levels of Hb in PSAC (standardized ß=0·14; P=0·01). CONCLUSIONS: National prevalence of Fe deficiency in Bangladesh is low, contrary to the widely held assumption. High Fe level in groundwater is associated with higher Fe status (all populations) and higher Hb level (PSAC).

Status of zinc nutrition in Bangladesh: the underlying associations.

Bangladesh is a country with a high burden of micronutrient malnutrition. Stunting affects 41 % of children aged under 5 years. Zn is one of the key micronutrients that is associated with stunting. The present study, as part of the national micronutrient survey 2011-2012, revealed for the first time the nationally representative prevalence of Zn deficiency and determined the associations of the condition. A cross-sectional 'nationwide' survey was conducted in pre-school-age children (6-59 months; PSAC) and non-pregnant non-lactating women (15-49 years; NPNLW). Multistage random sampling was done in 150 clusters; fifty in each of the rural, urban and slum strata. Data were analysed on 662 PSAC and 1073 NPNLW. Serum Zn was assayed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Zn deficiency was defined as serum Zn of <9·9 and <10·1 µmol/l in PSAC and NPNLW, respectively. The national prevalence of Zn deficiency was 44·6 and 57·3 % in PSAC and NPNLW, respectively. In PSAC, it was 29·5, 48·6 and 51·7 %, respectively, in urban, rural and slum strata. Household expenses (ß = 0·13; P = 0·007), Hb (ß = 0·10; P = 0·005), intake of animal-source Zn (ß = 0·096; P = 0·02) and asset score (ß = 0·11; P = 0·03) were positively associated with serum Zn in NPNLW. Residence in an urban area (ß = 0·33; P = 0·03) and intake of plant-origin Zn (ß = -0·13; P = 0·038) determined higher and lower status of Zn in PSAC, respectively. Zn deficiency was highly prevalent in Bangladesh, and it was principally related to inadequate quality of diet. To improve Zn nutrition, Bangladesh needs to strengthen research and programmes related to Zn biofortification, fortification and phytate-reducing technologies in the food system in the short and medium term. In addition, promotion of animal-source Zn for all is important in the long run.