Effect of Salt Addition and Fermentation Time on Phenolics, Microbial Dynamics, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Sensory Properties of the PDO Table Olives of Gaeta (Italy).

'Oliva di Gaeta' is almost certainly the most important and well-known PDO denomination for table olives in Italy. Their production is based on a specific two-stage trade preparation called the 'Itrana' method. In this work, we investigated how variations in the duration of the initial water fermentation (i.e., 15 and 30 days) and the salt concentration (i.e., 6% and 8% NaCl) influence the chemical features, microbial dynamics, polyphenols, volatile organic compounds, and sensory features of 'Oliva di Gaeta'. The time of the addition of salt did not affect the final concentration in the brine, but a longer initial water fermentation (before salt addition) led to lower pH values. The bacterial count constantly increased until the salt addition (i.e., either 15 or 30 days), while the yeast population peaked on day 30. Generally, the two different salt concentrations did not affect the count of microorganisms at the end of fermentation, with the only exception being a higher lactic acid bacteria count for the treatment with 6% salt added at 30 days. At commercial maturity, the crucial bitter tastant oleuropein was not completely removed from the drupes, and differences in salt concentration and the length of the first-stage water fermentation did not influence its content at the end of olive curing. Richer volatile profiles of olives were detected with higher-salt treatments, while the combination of low salt and early saline treatment provided a more distinct profile. Longer initial water fermentation caused a small increase in some phenolic compounds (e.g., iso-verbascoside, verbascoside, and hydroxytyrosol-glucoside). A panel test indicated that salt application at 30 days resulted in a more "Sour" and "Bitter" taste, irrespective of the salt concentration. The low salt concentration coupled with the late saline treatment resulted in more "Fruity" notes, probably due to the higher production of esters by lactobacilli. The slightly bitter perception of the olives was consistent with the partial removal of oleuropein. Our work revealed the characteristics of the 'Itrana' method and that the variation in salt concentration and its time of application changes parameters ranging from the microbial dynamics to the sensory profile. Specifically, our data indicate that 6% NaCl coupled with a longer initial water fermentation is the most different condition: it is less effective in blocking microbial growth but, at the same time, is more potent in altering the nutritional (e.g., polyphenols) and sensorial qualities (e.g., bitterness and fruitiness) of 'Oliva di Gaeta'.

Metabolic Insights into the Anion-Anion Antagonism in Sweet Basil: Effects of Different Nitrate/Chloride Ratios in the Nutrient Solution.

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a highly versatile and globally popular culinary herb, and a rich source of aromatic and bioactive compounds. Particularly for leafy vegetables, nutrient management allows a more efficient and sustainable improvement of crop yield and quality. In this work, we investigated the effects of balanced modulation of the concentration of two antagonist anions (nitrate and chlorine) in basil. Specifically, we evaluated the changes in yield and leaf metabolic profiles in response to four different NO3-:Cl- ratios in two consecutive harvests, using a full factorial design. Our work indicated that the variation of the nitrate-chloride ratio exerts a large effect on both metabolomic profile and yield in basil, which cannot be fully explained only by an anion-anion antagonist outcome. The metabolomic reprogramming involved different biochemical classes of compounds, with distinctive traits as a function of the different nutrient ratios. Such changes involved not only a response to nutrients availability, but also to redox imbalance and oxidative stress. A network of signaling compounds, including NO and phytohormones, underlined the modeling of metabolomic signatures. Our work highlighted the potential and the magnitude of the effect of nutrient solution management in basil and provided an advancement towards understanding the metabolic response to anion antagonism in plants.

The Metabolic Reprogramming Induced by Sub-Optimal Nutritional and Light Inputs in Soilless Cultivated Green and Red Butterhead Lettuce.

Sub-optimal growing conditions have a major effect on plants; therefore, large efforts are devoted to maximizing the availability of agricultural inputs to crops. To increase the sustainable use of non-renewable inputs, attention is currently given to the study of plants under non-optimal conditions. In this work, we investigated the impact of sub-optimal macrocations availability and light intensity in two lettuce varieties that differ for the accumulation of secondary metabolites (i.e., 'Red Salanova' and 'Green Salanova'). Photosynthesis-related measurements and untargeted metabolomics were used to identify responses and pathways involved in stress resilience. The pigmented ('Red') and the non-pigmented ('Green Salanova') lettuce exhibited distinctive responses to sub-optimal conditions. The cultivar specific metabolomic signatures comprised a broad modulation of metabolism, including secondary metabolites, phytohormones, and membrane lipids signaling cascade. Several stress-related metabolites were altered by either treatment, including polyamines (and other nitrogen-containing compounds), phenylpropanoids, and lipids. The metabolomics and physiological response to macrocations availability and light intensity also implies that the effects of low-input sustainable farming systems should be evaluated considering a range of cultivar-specific positive and disadvantageous metabolic effects in addition to yield and other socio-economic parameters.

Phytochemical Profile, Mineral Content, and Bioactive Compounds in Leaves of Seed-Propagated Artichoke Hybrid Cultivars.

The globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L. subsp. Scolymus (L.) Hegi) is a multi-year species rich in various classes of phytochemicals with known nutritional and pharmacological properties, such as polyphenols, sesquiterpene lactones, and terpenoids. Over the last decade, hybrids cultivars are transforming the artichoke market for their higher uniformity and stability over the traditional landraces, further increasing the potential of the artichoke as a source of commercial extracts and bioactive molecules. Our aim was to investigate the mineral and phytochemical profiles of leaves from seven seed-propagated hybrids by using an untargeted metabolomic approach based on ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Metabolomics identified several compounds in the tested varieties, namely 98 polyphenols, 123 sesquiterpene lactones, and 221 other metabolites. The phenolic content ranged from 3.01 mg Eq./g fw (for 'Opera') to 4.71 mg Eq./g fw (for 'Opal'). Sesquiterpene lactones were, on average, 2.11 mg Eq./g fw. Multivariate statistics (HCA, PCA and OPLS-DA) highlighted the main metabolomics differences among cultivars, which weakly correlated with their agronomic classification. The seven cultivars showed distinctive metabolomics profiles, with 'Opal' and 'Istar' being the most valuable hybrids. The 3-hydroxyphenyl-valeric acid (a medium-chain fatty acid) and the 6-Gingesulfonic acid (a methoxyphenol) were the most discriminant markers. Our findings illustrated the quantitative and qualitative variation of several classes of phytochemicals in seed-propagated artichoke cultivars and allowed identifying distinctive metabolic signatures for both phenolic compounds and sesquiterpene lactones. This work supports the exploitation of the artichoke leaves from hybrid cultivars as a rich source of bioactive phytochemicals.

TPS Genes Silencing Alters Constitutive Indirect and Direct Defense in Tomato.

Following herbivore attacks, plants modify a blend of volatiles organic compounds (VOCs) released, resulting in the attraction of their antagonists. However, volatiles released constitutively may affect herbivores and natural enemies' fitness too. In tomato there is still a lack of information on the genetic bases responsible for the constitutive release of VOC involved in direct and indirect defenses. Here we studied the constitutive emissions related to the two most abundant sesquiterpene synthase genes expressed in tomato and their functional role in plant defense. Using an RNA interference approach, we silenced the expression of TPS9 and TPS12 genes and assessed the effect of this transformation on herbivores and parasitoids. We found that silenced plants displayed a different constitutive volatiles emission from controls, resulting in reduced attractiveness for the aphid parasitoid Aphidius ervi and in an impaired development of Spodoptera exigua larvae. We discussed these data considering the transcriptional regulation of key-genes involved in the pathway of VOC metabolism. We provide several lines of evidence on the metabolic flux from terpenoids to phenylpropanoids. Our results shed more light on constitutive defenses mediated by plant volatiles and on the molecular mechanisms involved in their metabolic regulation.

A comparison between constitutive and inducible transgenic expression of the PhRIP I gene for broad-spectrum resistance against phytopathogens in potato.

OBJECTIVES: To engineer broad spectrum resistance in potato using different expression strategies. RESULTS: The previously identified Ribosome-Inactivating Protein from Phytolacca heterotepala was expressed in potato under a constitutive or a wound-inducible promoter. Leaves and tubers of the plants constitutively expressing the transgene were resistant to Botrytis cinerea and Rhizoctonia solani, respectively. The wound-inducible promoter was useful in driving the expression upon wounding and fungal damage, and conferred resistance to B. cinerea. The observed differences between the expression strategies are discussed considering the benefits and features offered by the two systems. CONCLUSIONS: Evidence is provided of the possible impact of promoter sequences to engineer BSR in plants, highlighting that the selection of a suitable expression strategy has to balance specific needs and target species.

Prosystemin Overexpression in Tomato Enhances Resistance to Different Biotic Stresses by Activating Genes of Multiple Signaling Pathways.

Systemin is a signal peptide that promotes the response to wounding and herbivore attack in tomato. This 18-amino acid peptide is released from a larger precursor, prosystemin. To study the role of systemin as a modulator of defense signaling, we generated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) transgenic plants that overexpress the prosystemin cDNA. We carried out a transcriptomic analysis comparing two different transgenic events with the untransformed control. The Gene Ontology categories of the 503 differentially expressed genes indicated that several biological functions were affected. Systemin promotes the expression of an array of defense genes that are dependent on different signaling pathways and it downregulates genes connected with carbon fixation and carbohydrate metabolism. These alterations present a degree of overlap with the response programs that are classically associated to pathogen defense or abiotic stress protection, implying that end products of the systemin signaling pathway may be more diverse than expected. We show also that the observed transcriptional modifications have a relevant functional outcome, since transgenic lines were more resistant against very different biotic stressors such as aphids (Macrosiphum euphorbiae), phytopathogenic fungi (Botrytis cinerea and Alternaria alternata) and phytophagous larvae (Spodoptera littoralis). Our work demonstrated that in tomato the modulation of a single gene is sufficient to provide a wide resistance against stress by boosting endogenous defense pathways. Overall, the data provided evidence that the systemin peptide might serve as DAMP signal in tomato, acting as a broad indicator of tissue integrity.

SNP genotyping reveals genetic diversity between cultivated landraces and contemporary varieties of tomato.

BACKGROUND: The tomato (Solanum lycopersium L.) is the most widely grown vegetable in the world. It was domesticated in Latin America and Italy and Spain are considered secondary centers of diversification. This food crop has experienced severe genetic bottlenecks and modern breeding activities have been characterized by trait introgression from wild species and divergence in different market classes. RESULTS: With the aim to examine patterns of polymorphism, characterize population structure and identify putative loci under positive selection, we genotyped 214 tomato accessions (which include cultivated landraces, commercial varieties and wild relatives) using a custom-made Illumina SNP-panel. Most of the 175 successfully scored SNP loci were found to be polymorphic. Population structure analysis and estimates of genetic differentiation indicated that landraces constitute distinct sub-populations. Furthermore, contemporary varieties could be separated in groups (processing, fresh and cherry) that are consistent with the recent breeding aimed at market-class specialization. In addition, at the 95% confidence level, we identified 30, 34 and 37 loci under positive selection between landraces and each of the groups of commercial variety (cherry, processing and fresh market, respectively). Their number and genomic locations imply the presence of some extended regions with high genetic variation between landraces and contemporary varieties. CONCLUSIONS: Our work provides knowledge concerning the level and distribution of genetic variation within cultivated tomato landraces and increases our understanding of the genetic subdivision of contemporary varieties. The data indicate that adaptation and selection have led to a genomic signature in cultivated landraces and that the subpopulation structure of contemporary varieties is shaped by directed breeding and largely of recent origin. The genomic characterization presented here is an essential step towards a future exploitation of the available tomato genetic resources in research and breeding programs.

Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of a compatible tomato-aphid interaction reveals a predominant salicylic acid-dependent plant response.

BACKGROUND: Aphids are among the most destructive pests in temperate climates, causing significant damage on several crops including tomato. We carried out a transcriptomic and proteomic study to get insights into the molecular mechanisms and dynamics of the tomato response to the Macrosyphum euphorbiae aphid. RESULTS: The time course analysis of aphid infestation indicated a complex, dynamic pattern of gene expression. Several biological functions were affected and genes related to the stress and defence response were the most represented. The Gene Ontology categories of the differentially expressed genes (899) and identified proteins (57) indicated that the tomato response is characterized by an increased oxidative stress accompanied by the production of proteins involved in the detoxification of oxygen radicals. Aphids elicit a defense reaction based on the cross-communication of different hormone-related signaling pathways such as those related to the salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene and brassinosteroids. Among them, the SA-signaling pathway and stress-responsive SA-dependent genes play a dominant role. Furthermore, tomato response is characterized by a reduced accumulation of photosynthetic proteins and a modification of the expression of various cell wall related genes. CONCLUSIONS: Our work allowed a more comprehensive understanding of the signaling events and the defense dynamics of the tomato response to aphids in a compatible interaction and, based on experimental data, a model of the tomato-aphid molecular interaction was proposed. Considering the rapid advancement of tomato genomics, this information will be important for the development of new protection strategies.

Early Canopy Management Practices Differentially Modulate Fruit Set, Fruit Yield, and Berry Composition at Harvest Depending on the Grapevine Cultivar.

The size and number of the berries and the rachis length are the main elements that define bunch compactness in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). This trait is of scientific and commercial interest because it strongly influences phytosanitary status and quality of the fruits. In this work, we investigated the effect of different canopy management strategies based on apical shoot and/or leaf removal applied at the early stage (pre-bloom) in altering the key determinants of bunch compactness. Specifically, we compared apical defoliation (removal of the first half of the shoot leaves from the top), basal defoliation (removal of the second half), and shoot trimming (removal of the apical half of the shoot) to untreated controls. The work was carried out in two red varieties ('Aglianico' and 'Casavecchia') that have contrasting bunch compactness (compact and loose, respectively). We measured relevant morphological traits, photosynthetic rates, fertility, fruit set, bunch architecture, and fruit main compositional parameters. This study demonstrates that the position of the removed shoot leaves along with the shoot trimming differentially modified fruit set, the number of berries per bunch, and berry fresh weight and composition at harvest. Nonetheless, the influence on bunch compactness was limited mainly because of photosynthetic and morphological factors strongly associated with the cultivar.

Identification and Characterization of New Seedborne Pathogens in Phaseolus vulgaris Landraces of Southern Italy.

The diagnostic survey of seedborne fungal pathogens is fundamental for symptomless material stored in gene banks to avoid the diffusion of pathogens by germplasm distribution and propagation. In this work, seeds of Southern Italian landraces of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) belonging to the gene bank at CREA (Italy) were inspected to assess their phytosanitary status. The phytopathological analysis revealed the presence of the most common pathogens associated with common bean seeds such as Fusarium spp., Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum and Diaporthe/Phomopsis complex. However, new fungi able to completely inhibit seed germination were also observed. The most aggressive were isolated, and the morpho-pathological characterization, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis allowed us to define the strains as Botryosphaeria dothidea CREA OF 360.4 and Diplodia mutila CREA OF 420.36. These two plant pathogens are generally associated with grapevines and other fruit trees. Pathogenicity tests were carried out along with a transmissibility test in which the transmission of the pathogens to the seedlings was proven. Host range experiments revealed the ability of these pathogens to infect crops such as pepper and melon. To our knowledge, this is the first time that B. dothidea and D. mutila were detected on the common bean.

Advancing the Conservation and Utilization of Barley Genetic Resources: Insights into Germplasm Management and Breeding for Sustainable Agriculture.

Barley is a very important crop particularly in marginal dry areas, where it often serves as the most viable option for farmers. Additionally, barley carries great significance in the Western world, serving not only as a fundamental crop for animal feed and malting but also as a nutritious food source. The broad adaptability of barley and its ability to withstand various biotic and abiotic stresses often make this species the sole cereal that can be cultivated in arid regions. The collection and utilization of barley genetic resources are crucial for identifying valuable traits to enhance productivity and mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. This review aims to provide an overview of the management and exploitation of barley genetic resources. Furthermore, the review explores the relationship between gene banks and participatory breeding, offering insights into the diversity and utilization of barley genetic resources through some examples such as the initiatives undertaken by ICARDA. Finally, this contribution highlights the importance of these resources for boosting barley productivity, addressing climate change impacts, and meeting the growing food demands in a rapidly changing agriculture. The understanding and utilizing the rich genetic diversity of barley can contribute to sustainable agriculture and ensure the success of this vital crop for future generations globally.

Zinc biofortification of Genovese basil: Influence on mineral profile and estimated daily intake in adults and children.

Despite the well-known beneficial function of Zn in human health, its deficiency is an increasingly recognized worldwide concern. In this work, we evaluated the agronomic biofortification of two basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivars ('Aroma 2' and 'Eleonora') using nutrient solutions with different Zn concentrations (0, 12.5, 25, 37.5, and 50 µM). We focused on the impact of biofortification on the mineral profile quantified by ICP OES. Compared to the control, biofortification treatments increased Zn concentration by 22.03 % (on average). Consumption of one serving of 50 µM of Zn biofortified basil 'Aroma 2' guarantees an estimated daily intake (EDI) of 275.746 and 91.915 µg day-1 in adults and children, respectively. Furthermore, Zn biofortification positively affected the mineral profile of the leaves. Compared to the control, the B50 dose of Zn (50 µM of Zn) increased the EDI of macro and microelements in adults and children. This aspect highlights how biofortified basil consumption would improve consumers' nutritional status.

Morphological and Genetic Clonal Diversity within the 'Greco Bianco' Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) Variety.

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) has been propagated vegetatively for hundreds of years. Therefore, plants tend to accumulate somatic mutations that can result in an intra-varietal diversity capable of generating distinct clones. Although it is common that winemakers request specific clones or selections for planting new vineyards, relatively limited information is available on the extent, degree, and morphological impact of the clonal diversity in traditional, highly valued grapevine varieties within production areas protected by geographical denomination of origin. Here, we present a morphological and genetic investigation of the intra-varietal diversity in 'Greco Bianco', the grapevine variety used to produce the DOCG and PDO "Greco di Tufo" wine. Seventeen clones from different farms (all within the allowed production area) were phenotypically characterized using ampelographic and ampelometric traits. The clones were also genotyped with Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) and retrotransposon-based DNA markers (REMAP). The morphological analysis indicated a uniformity in the qualitatively scored traits, and a limited variability for the quantitative traits of the bunch and of the berry composition. The molecular markers also depicted variability among clones, which was more evident with the use of REMAPs. The comparison of the discriminatory information of the three analyses indicated that they provided different estimates of the level of diversity. The evaluation described herein of the clonal variability has implications for the management and protection of clonal selections in 'Greco Bianco' and prompts for further multidisciplinary investigations on its possible role in winemaking.

Enhancing the Fruit Yield and Quality in Pomegranate: Insights into Drip Irrigation and Mulching Strategies.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a fruit tree that is globally distributed, especially in warm areas with low annual rainfall and limited water availability. This species exemplifies the critical role of water in agriculture and the need for efficient irrigation practices due to its characteristics, cultivation requirements, and geographic diffusion. In this study, we investigated the effects of drip irrigation and mulching on the vegetative growth, yield, and fruit quality attributes of pomegranate. The experiment involved three irrigation regimes (100% of evapotranspiration, 80%, and 60%) and three mulching treatments (no mulch, plastic mulch, and organic mulch) in a factorial combination. Both irrigation and mulching had significant positive influences on the yield and fruit quality attributes. Specifically, deficit irrigation strategies showed a negative impact on the fruit yield per tree, with a greater effect observed as the severity of the irrigation deficit increased. Mulching, on the other hand, led to a significant increase in the fruit yield, primarily attributed to an increase in fruit size. Furthermore, the analysis indicated that irrigation and mulching treatments had distinct effects on fruit traits such as the fruit length, width, volume, and rind thickness. Interestingly, the study highlighted that the effects of irrigation and mulching on fruit quality attributes were mostly independent of each other, suggesting an additive influence rather than an interaction between the two factors. These findings underscore the importance of considering irrigation and mulching practices for optimizing fruit quality in pomegranate cultivation, particularly in semi-arid regions. The results contribute valuable insights for farmers and researchers seeking to enhance fruit production and quality.

Enhancing Crop Resilience to Drought Stress through CRISPR-Cas9 Genome Editing.

With increasing frequency and severity of droughts in various parts of the world, agricultural productivity may suffer major setbacks. Among all the abiotic factors, drought is likely to have one of the most detrimental effects on soil organisms and plants. Drought is a major problem for crops because it limits the availability of water, and consequently nutrients which are crucial for plant growth and survival. This results in reduced crop yields, stunted growth, and even plant death, according to the severity and duration of the drought, the plant's developmental stage, and the plant's genetic background. The ability to withstand drought is a highly complex characteristic that is controlled by multiple genes, making it one of the most challenging attributes to study, classify, and improve. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat (CRISPR) technology has opened a new frontier in crop enhancement, revolutionizing plant molecular breeding. The current review provides a general understanding of principles as well as optimization of CRISPR system, and presents applications on genetic enhancement of crops, specifically in terms of drought resistance and yield. Moreover, we discuss how innovative genome editing techniques can aid in the identification and modification of genes conferring drought tolerance.

Antioxidant Potential of Glutathione and Crosstalk with Phytohormones in Enhancing Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants.

Glutathione (GSH) is an abundant tripeptide that can enhance plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress. Its main role is to counter free radicals and detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in cells under unfavorable conditions. Moreover, along with other second messengers (such as ROS, calcium, nitric oxide, cyclic nucleotides, etc.), GSH also acts as a cellular signal involved in stress signal pathways in plants, directly or along with the glutaredoxin and thioredoxin systems. While associated biochemical activities and roles in cellular stress response have been widely presented, the relationship between phytohormones and GSH has received comparatively less attention. This review, after presenting glutathione as part of plants' feedback to main abiotic stress factors, focuses on the interaction between GSH and phytohormones, and their roles in the modulation of the acclimatation and tolerance to abiotic stress in crops plants.

Plant biostimulants as natural alternatives to synthetic auxins in strawberry production: physiological and metabolic insights.

The demand for high-quality strawberries continues to grow, emphasizing the need for innovative agricultural practices to enhance both yield and fruit quality. In this context, the utilization of natural products, such as biostimulants, has emerged as a promising avenue for improving strawberry production while aligning with sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural approaches. This study explores the influence of a bacterial filtrate (BF), a vegetal-derived protein hydrolysate (PH), and a standard synthetic auxin (SA) on strawberry, investigating their effects on yield, fruit quality, mineral composition and metabolomics of leaves and fruits. Agronomic trial revealed that SA and BF significantly enhanced early fruit yield due to their positive influence on flowering and fruit set, while PH treatment favored a gradual and prolonged fruit set, associated with an increased shoot biomass and sustained production. Fruit quality analysis showed that PH-treated fruits exhibited an increase of firmness and soluble solids content, whereas SA-treated fruits displayed lower firmness and soluble solids content. The ionomic analysis of leaves and fruits indicated that all treatments provided sufficient nutrients, with heavy metals within regulatory limits. Metabolomics indicated that PH stimulated primary metabolites, while SA and BF directly affected flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthesis, and PH increased fruit quality through enhanced production of beneficial metabolites. This research offers valuable insights for optimizing strawberry production and fruit quality by harnessing the potential of natural biostimulants as viable alternative to synthetic compounds.

Molecular interactions between the olive and the fruit fly Bactrocera oleae.

BACKGROUND: The fruit fly Bactrocera oleae is the primary biotic stressor of cultivated olives, causing direct and indirect damages that significantly reduce both the yield and the quality of olive oil. To study the olive-B. oleae interaction, we conducted transcriptomic and proteomic investigations of the molecular response of the drupe. The identifications of genes and proteins involved in the fruit response were performed using a Suppression Subtractive Hybridisation technique and a combined bi-dimensional electrophoresis/nanoLC-ESI-LIT-MS/MS approach, respectively. RESULTS: We identified 196 ESTs and 26 protein spots as differentially expressed in olives with larval feeding tunnels. A bioinformatic analysis of the identified non-redundant EST and protein collection indicated that different molecular processes were affected, such as stress response, phytohormone signalling, transcriptional control and primary metabolism, and that a considerable proportion of the ESTs could not be classified. The altered expression of 20 transcripts was also analysed by real-time PCR, and the most striking differences were further confirmed in the fruit of a different olive variety. We also cloned the full-length coding sequences of two genes, Oe-chitinase I and Oe-PR27, and showed that these are wound-inducible genes and activated by B. oleae punctures. CONCLUSIONS: This study represents the first report that reveals the molecular players and signalling pathways involved in the interaction between the olive fruit and its most damaging biotic stressor. Drupe response is complex, involving genes and proteins involved in photosynthesis as well as in the production of ROS, the activation of different stress response pathways and the production of compounds involved in direct defence against phytophagous larvae. Among the latter, trypsin inhibitors should play a major role in drupe resistance reaction.

Current Trends and Perspectives on Predictive Models for Mildew Diseases in Vineyards.

Environmental and economic costs demand a rapid transition to more sustainable farming systems, which are still heavily dependent on chemicals for crop protection. Despite their widespread application, powdery mildew (PM) and downy mildew (DM) continue to generate serious economic penalties for grape and wine production. To reduce these losses and minimize environmental impacts, it is important to predict infections with high confidence and accuracy, allowing timely and efficient intervention. This review provides an appraisal of the predictive tools for PM and DM in a vineyard, a specialized farming system characterized by high crop protection cost and increasing adoption of precision agriculture techniques. Different methodological approaches, from traditional mechanistic or statistic models to machine and deep learning, are outlined with their main features, potential, and constraints. Our analysis indicated that strategies are being continuously developed to achieve the required goals of ease of monitoring and timely prediction of diseases. We also discuss that scientific and technological advances (e.g., in weather data, omics, digital solutions, sensing devices, data science) still need to be fully harnessed, not only for modelling plant-pathogen interaction but also to develop novel, integrated, and robust predictive systems and related applied technologies. We conclude by identifying key challenges and perspectives for predictive modelling of phytopathogenic disease in vineyards.