Capturing carbon dioxide from air with charged-sorbents.

Emissions reduction and greenhouse gas removal from the atmosphere are both necessary to achieve net-zero emissions and limit climate change1. There is thus a need for improved sorbents for the capture of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, a process known as direct air capture. In particular, low-cost materials that can be regenerated at low temperatures would overcome the limitations of current technologies. In this work, we introduce a new class of designer sorbent materials known as 'charged-sorbents'. These materials are prepared through a battery-like charging process that accumulates ions in the pores of low-cost activated carbons, with the inserted ions then serving as sites for carbon dioxide adsorption. We use our charging process to accumulate reactive hydroxide ions in the pores of a carbon electrode, and find that the resulting sorbent material can rapidly capture carbon dioxide from ambient air by means of (bi)carbonate formation. Unlike traditional bulk carbonates, charged-sorbent regeneration can be achieved at low temperatures (90-100 °C) and the sorbent's conductive nature permits direct Joule heating regeneration2,3 using renewable electricity. Given their highly tailorable pore environments and low cost, we anticipate that charged-sorbents will find numerous potential applications in chemical separations, catalysis and beyond.

Discovery and In Situ Crystallization Studies of Cerium-Based Metal-Organic Frameworks with V-Shaped Linker Molecules.

We report the discovery and characterization of two porous Ce(III)-based metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with the V-shaped linker molecules 4,4'-sulfonyldibenzoate (SDB2-) and 4,4'-(hexafluoroisopropylidene)bis(benzoate) (hfipbb2-). The compounds of framework composition [Ce2(H2O)(SDB)3] (1) and [Ce2(hfipbb)3] (2) were obtained by using a synthetic approach in acetonitrile that we recently established. Structure determination of 1 was accomplished from 3D electron diffraction (3D ED) data, while 2 could be refined against powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) data using the crystal structure of an isostructural La-MOF as the starting model. Their framework structures consist of chain-like inorganic building units (IBUs) or hybrid-BUs that are interconnected by the V-shaped linker molecules to form framework structures with channel-type pores. The composition of both compounds was confirmed by PXRD, elemental analysis, as well as NMR and IR spectroscopy. Interestingly, despite the use of (NH4)2[CeIV(NO3)6] in the synthesis, cerium ions in both MOFs occur exclusively in the + III oxidation state as determined by X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Thermal analyses reveal remarkably high thermal stabilities of ≥400 °C for the MOFs. Initial N2 sorption measurements revealed the peculiar sorption behavior of 2 which prompted a deeper investigation by Ar and CO2 sorption experiments. The combination with nonlocal density functional theory (NL-DFT) calculations adds to the understanding of the nature of the different pore diameters in 2. An extensive quasi-simultaneous in situ XANES/XRD investigation was carried out to unveil the formation of Ce-MOFs during the solvothermal syntheses in acetonitrile. The crystallization of the two Ce(III)-MOFs presented herein as well as two previously reported Ce(IV)-MOFs, all obtained by a similar synthetic approach, were studied. While the XRD patterns show time-dependent MOF crystallization, the XANES data reveal the presence of Ce(III) intermediates and their subsequent conversion to the MOFs. The addition of acetic acid in combination with the V-shaped linker molecule was identified as the crucial factor for the formation of the crystalline Ce(III/IV)-MOFs.

Surface species in direct liquid phase synthesis of dimethyl carbonate from methanol and CO2: an MCR-ALS augmented ATR-IR study.

The reaction mechanism of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) production over ZrO2 from CO2 and CH3OH is well-known, but the level of understanding has not improved in the last decade. Most commonly, the reaction mechanism has been explored in the gas phase, whilst DMC production occurs in the liquid phase. To overcome this contradiction, we exploited in situ ATR-IR spectroscopy to study DMC formation over ZrO2 in the liquid phase. A multiple curve resolution-alternate least square (MCR-ALS) approach was applied to spectra collected during the CO2/CH3OH interaction with the catalyst surface, leading to the identification of five pure components with their respective concentration profiles. CO2 and CH3OH activation to carbonates and methoxide species was found to strongly depend on the reaction temperature. Low temperature prevents methanol dissociation leaving a catalyst covered with stable carbonates, whilst higher temperature decreases the stability of the carbonates and enhances the formation of methoxides. A reaction path involving the methoxide/carbonate interaction at the surface was observed at low temperature (≤50 °C). We propose that a different reaction path, independent of carbonate formation and involving the direct CO2/methoxide interplay, occurs at 70 °C.

A spin transition mechanism for cooperative adsorption in metal-organic frameworks.

Cooperative binding, whereby an initial binding event facilitates the uptake of additional substrate molecules, is common in biological systems such as haemoglobin. It was recently shown that porous solids that exhibit cooperative binding have substantial energetic benefits over traditional adsorbents, but few guidelines currently exist for the design of such materials. In principle, metal-organic frameworks that contain coordinatively unsaturated metal centres could act as both selective and cooperative adsorbents if guest binding at one site were to trigger an electronic transformation that subsequently altered the binding properties at neighbouring metal sites. Here we illustrate this concept through the selective adsorption of carbon monoxide (CO) in a series of metal-organic frameworks featuring coordinatively unsaturated iron(ii) sites. Functioning via a mechanism by which neighbouring iron(ii) sites undergo a spin-state transition above a threshold CO pressure, these materials exhibit large CO separation capacities with only small changes in temperature. The very low regeneration energies that result may enable more efficient Fischer-Tropsch conversions and extraction of CO from industrial waste feeds, which currently underutilize this versatile carbon synthon. The electronic basis for the cooperative adsorption demonstrated here could provide a general strategy for designing efficient and selective adsorbents suitable for various separations.

Cooperative insertion of CO2 in diamine-appended metal-organic frameworks.

The process of carbon capture and sequestration has been proposed as a method of mitigating the build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. If implemented, the cost of electricity generated by a fossil fuel-burning power plant would rise substantially, owing to the expense of removing CO2 from the effluent stream. There is therefore an urgent need for more efficient gas separation technologies, such as those potentially offered by advanced solid adsorbents. Here we show that diamine-appended metal-organic frameworks can behave as 'phase-change' adsorbents, with unusual step-shaped CO2 adsorption isotherms that shift markedly with temperature. Results from spectroscopic, diffraction and computational studies show that the origin of the sharp adsorption step is an unprecedented cooperative process in which, above a metal-dependent threshold pressure, CO2 molecules insert into metal-amine bonds, inducing a reorganization of the amines into well-ordered chains of ammonium carbamate. As a consequence, large CO2 separation capacities can be achieved with small temperature swings, and regeneration energies appreciably lower than achievable with state-of-the-art aqueous amine solutions become feasible. The results provide a mechanistic framework for designing highly efficient adsorbents for removing CO2 from various gas mixtures, and yield insights into the conservation of Mg(2+) within the ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase family of enzymes.

Copper Pairing in the Mordenite Framework as a Function of the CuI /CuII Speciation.

A series of gas-phase reactants is used to treat a Cu-exchanged mordenite zeolite with the aim of studying the influence of the reaction environment on the formation of Cu pairs. The rearrangement of Cu ions to form multimeric sites as a function of their oxidation state was probed by X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and also by applying advanced analysis through wavelet transform, a method able to specifically locate Cu-Cu interactions also in the presence of overlapping contributions from other scattering paths. The nature of the Cu-oxo species formed upon oxidation was further crosschecked by DFT-assisted fitting of the EXAFS data and by resonant Raman spectroscopy. Altogether, the CuI /CuII speciation clearly correlates with Cu proximity, with metal ion pairs quantitatively forming under an oxidative environment.

Titanium Defective Sites in TS-1: Structural Insights by Combining Spectroscopy and Simulation.

Ti silicates, and in particular, titanium silicalite-1 (TS-1), are nowadays important catalysts for several partial oxidation reactions in the presence of aqueous H2 O2 as an oxidant. Despite the numerous studies dealing with this material, some fundamental aspects are still unclear. In particular, the structure and the catalytic role of defective Ti sites, other than perfect tetrahedral sites recognized as the main active species, has not been quantitatively discussed in the literature. We assess the structural features of defective Ti sites on the basis of outcomes of electronic spectroscopies, as interpreted through quantum mechanical simulation. Strong evidence is disclosed to support the fact that the most common defective Ti sites, often reported in the TS-1 literature, are monomeric Ti centers that are embedded in the zeolite framework, and which have a distorted octahedral local symmetry.

Tuning the Negative Thermal Expansion Behavior of the Metal-Organic Framework Cu3BTC2 by Retrofitting.

The modular building principle of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) presents an excellent platform to explore and establish structure-property relations that tie microscopic to macroscopic properties. Negative thermal expansion (NTE) is a common phenomenon in MOFs and is often ascribed to collective motions that can move through the structure at sufficiently low energies. Here, we show that the introduction of additional linkages in a parent framework, retrofitting, is an effective approach to access lattice dynamics experimentally, in turn providing researchers with a tool to alter the NTE behavior in MOFs. By introducing TCNQ (7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane) into the prototypical MOF Cu3BTC2 (BTC = 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylate; HKUST-1), NTE can be tuned between αV = -15.3 × 10-6 K-1 (Cu3BTC2) and αV = -8.4 × 10-6 K-1 (1.0TCNQ@Cu3BTC2). We ascribe this phenomenon to a general stiffening of the framework as a function of TCNQ loading due to additional network connectivity, which is confirmed by computational modeling and far-infrared spectroscopy. Our findings imply that retrofitting is generally applicable to MOFs with open metal sites, opening yet another way to fine-tune properties in this versatile class of materials.

Ti-Based Catalysts and Photocatalysts: Characterization and Modeling.

This perspective article aims to underline how cutting-edge synchrotron radiation spectroscopies such as extended X-ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS), X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES), high resolution fluorescence detected (HRFD) XANES, X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) and resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) have played a key role in the structural and electronic characterization of Ti-based catalysts and photocatalysts, representing an important additional value to the outcomes of conventional laboratory spectroscopies (UV-Vis, IR, Raman, EPR, NMR etc.). Selected examples are taken from the authors research activity in the last two decades, covering both band-gap and shape engineered TiO2 materials and microporous titanosilicates (ETS-10, TS-1 and Ti-AlPO-5). The relevance of the state of the art simulation techniques as a support for experiments interpretation is underlined for all the reported examples.

A Systematic Study of Isomorphically Substituted H-MAlPO-5 Materials for the Methanol-to-Hydrocarbons Reaction.

Substituting metals for either aluminum or phosphorus in crystalline, microporous aluminophosphates creates Brønsted acid sites, which are well known to catalyze several key reactions, including the methanol to hydrocarbons (MTH) reaction. In this work, we synthesized a series of metal-substituted aluminophosphates with AFI topology that differed primarily in their acid strength and that spanned a predicted range from high Brønsted acidity (H-MgAlPO-5, H-CoAlPO-5, and H-ZnAlPO-5) to medium acidity (H-SAPO-5) and low acidity (H-TiAlPO-5 and H-ZrAlPO-5). The synthesis was aimed to produce materials with homogenous properties (e.g. morphology, crystallite size, acid-site density, and surface area) to isolate the influence of metal substitution. This was verified by extensive characterization. The materials were tested in the MTH reaction at 450 °C by using dimethyl ether (DME) as feed. A clear activity difference was found, for which the predicted stronger acids converted DME significantly faster than the medium and weak Brønsted acidic materials. Furthermore, the stronger Brønsted acids (Mg, Co and Zn) produced more light alkenes than the weaker acids. The weaker acids, especially H-SAPO-5, produced more aromatics and alkanes, which indicates that the relative rates of competing reactions change upon decreasing the acid strength.

The role of dispersive forces determining the energetics of adsorption in Ti zeolites.

Ti-zeolites are interesting materials because of their key role in partial oxidation reactions, as well as under a fundamental point of view being regarded as single site catalysts. Both experimental and computational approaches have been widely applied to the characterization of their active sites, reaching a level of knowledge unmatchable by most other important catalysts. However, several questions are still open, being a proper energetic simulation of the adsorption process of simple molecules, fitting with the experimental outcomes, still missing. The present work wants to underline the role of dispersive forces in correctly determining the adsorption energies of H2 O and NH3 in Ti chabazite: first dispersive contributions have been included through an ONIOM scheme, comparing the results from semiempirical Grimme scheme and fully ab initio MP2. Being the key contribution of dispersion proved, a fully periodic, Grimme dispersions inclusive approach has been applied, coming to results close to the experimental values. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Reversible CO binding enables tunable CO/H2 and CO/N2 separations in metal-organic frameworks with exposed divalent metal cations.

Six metal-organic frameworks of the M2(dobdc) (M = Mg, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn; dobdc(4-) = 2,5-dioxido-1,4-benzenedicarboxylate) structure type are demonstrated to bind carbon monoxide reversibly and at high capacity. Infrared spectra indicate that, upon coordination of CO to the divalent metal cations lining the pores within these frameworks, the C-O stretching frequency is blue-shifted, consistent with nonclassical metal-CO interactions. Structure determinations reveal M-CO distances ranging from 2.09(2) Å for M = Ni to 2.49(1) Å for M = Zn and M-C-O angles ranging from 161.2(7)° for M = Mg to 176.9(6)° for M = Fe. Electronic structure calculations employing density functional theory (DFT) resulted in good agreement with the trends apparent in the infrared spectra and crystal structures. These results represent the first crystallographically characterized magnesium and zinc carbonyl compounds and the first high-spin manganese(II), iron(II), cobalt(II), and nickel(II) carbonyl species. Adsorption isotherms indicate reversible adsorption, with capacities for the Fe, Co, and Ni frameworks approaching one CO per metal cation site at 1 bar, corresponding to loadings as high as 6.0 mmol/g and 157 cm(3)/cm(3). The six frameworks display (negative) isosteric heats of CO adsorption ranging from 52.7 to 27.2 kJ/mol along the series Ni > Co > Fe > Mg > Mn > Zn, following the Irving-Williams stability order. The reversible CO binding suggests that these frameworks may be of utility for the separation of CO from various industrial gas mixtures, including CO/H2 and CO/N2. Selectivities determined from gas adsorption isotherm data using ideal adsorbed solution theory (IAST) over a range of gas compositions at 1 bar and 298 K indicate that all six M2(dobdc) frameworks could potentially be used as solid adsorbents to replace current cryogenic distillation technologies, with the choice of M dictating adsorbent regeneration energy and the level of purity of the resulting gases.

On the adsorption/reaction of acetone on pure and sulfate-modified zirconias.

In situ FTIR spectroscopy was employed to investigate some aspects of the ambient temperature (actually, IR-beam temperature) adsorption of acetone on various pure and sulfate-doped zirconia specimens. Acetone uptake yields, on all examined systems and to a variable extent, different types of specific molecular adsorption, depending on the kind/population of available surface sites: relatively weak H-bonding interaction(s) with surface hydroxyls, medium-strong coordinative interaction with Lewis acidic sites, and strong H-bonding interaction with Brønsted acidic centres. Moreover acetone, readily and abundantly adsorbed in molecular form, is able to undergo the aldol condensation reaction (yielding, as the main reaction product, adsorbed mesityl oxide) only if the adsorbing material possesses some specific surface features. The occurrence/non-occurrence of the acetone self-condensation reaction is discussed, and leads to conclusions concerning the sites that catalyze the condensation reaction that do not agree with either of two conflicting interpretations present in the literature of acetone uptake/reaction on, mainly, zeolitic systems. In particular, what turns out to be actually necessary for the acetone aldol condensation reaction to occur on the examined zirconia systems is the presence of coordinatively unsaturated O(2-) surface sites of basicity sufficient to lead to the extraction of a proton from one of the CH3 groups of adsorbed acetone.

CeO2 Frustrated Lewis Pairs Improving CO2 and CH3OH Conversion to Monomethylcarbonate.

Frustrated Lewis pairs (FLPs), discovered in the last few decades for homogeneous catalysts and in the last few years also for heterogeneous catalysts, are stimulating the scientific community's interest for their potential in small-molecule activation. Nevertheless, how an FLP activates stable molecules such as CO2 is still undefined. Through a careful spectroscopic study, we here report the formation of FLPs over a highly defective CeO2 sample prepared by microwave-assisted synthesis. Carbon dioxide activation over FLP is shown to occur through a bidentate carbonate bridging the FLP and implying a Ce3+-to-CO2 charge transfer, thus enhancing its activation. Carbon dioxide reaction with methanol to form monomethylcarbonate is here employed to demonstrate active roles of FLP and, eventually, to propose a reaction mechanism clarifying the role of Ce3+ and oxygen vacancies.

Quinoid-Thiophene-Based Covalent Organic Polymers for High Iodine Uptake: When Rational Chemical Design Counterbalances the Low Surface Area and Pore Volume.

A novel 2D covalent organic polymer (COP), based on conjugated quinoid-oligothiophene (QOT) and tris(aminophenyl) benzene (TAPB) moieties, is designed and synthesized (TAPB-QOT COP). Some DFT calculations are made to clarify the equilibrium between different QOT isomers and how they could affect the COP formation. Once synthetized, the polymer has been thoroughly characterized by spectroscopic (i.e., Raman, UV-vis), SSNMR and surface (e.g., SEM, BET) techniques, showing a modest surface area (113 m2 g-1) and micropore volume (0.014 cm3 g-1 with an averaged pore size of 5.6-8 Å). Notwithstanding this, TAPB-QOT COP shows a remarkably high iodine (I2) uptake capacity (464 %wt) comparable to or even higher than state-of-the-art porous organic polymers (POPs). These auspicious values are due to the thoughtful design of the polymer with embedded sulfur sites and a conjugated scaffold with the ability to counterbalance the relatively low pore volumes. Indeed, both morphological and Raman data, supported by computational analyses, prove the very high affinity between the S atom in our COP and the I2. As a result, TAPB-QOT COP shows the highest volumetric I2 uptake (i.e., the amount of I2 uptaken per volume unit) up to 331 g cm-3 coupled with a remarkably high reversibility (>80% after five cycles).

Cooperative CO2 adsorption mechanism in a perfluorinated CeIV-based metal organic framework.

Adsorbents able to uptake large amounts of gases within a narrow range of pressure, i.e., phase-change adsorbents, are emerging as highly interesting systems to achieve excellent gas separation performances with little energy input for regeneration. A recently discovered phase-change metal-organic framework (MOF) adsorbent is F4_MIL-140A(Ce), based on CeIV and tetrafluoroterephthalate. This MOF displays a non-hysteretic step-shaped CO2 adsorption isotherm, reaching saturation in conditions of temperature and pressure compatible with real life application in post-combustion carbon capture, biogas upgrading and acetylene purification. Such peculiar behaviour is responsible for the exceptional CO2/N2 selectivity and reverse CO2/C2H2 selectivity of F4_MIL-140A(Ce). Here, we combine data obtained from a wide pool of characterisation techniques - namely gas sorption analysis, in situ infrared spectroscopy, in situ powder X-ray diffraction, in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy, multinuclear solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and adsorption microcalorimetry - with periodic density functional theory simulations to provide evidence for the existence of a unique cooperative CO2 adsorption mechanism in F4_MIL-140A(Ce). Such mechanism involves the concerted rotation of perfluorinated aromatic rings when a threshold partial pressure of CO2 is reached, opening the gate towards an adsorption site where CO2 interacts with both open metal sites and the fluorine atoms of the linker.

Titration of Cu(I) Sites in Cu-ZSM-5 by Volumetric CO Adsorption.

Cu-exchanged zeolites are widely studied materials because of their importance in industrial energetic and environmental processes. Cu redox speciation lies at the center of many of these processes but is experimentally difficult to investigate in a quantitative manner with regular laboratory equipment. This work presents a novel technique for this purpose that exploits the selective adsorption of CO over accessible Cu(I) sites to quantify them. In particular, isothermal volumetric adsorption measurements are performed at 50 °C on a series of opportunely pre-reduced Cu-ZSM-5 to assess the relative fraction of Cu(I); the setup is fairly simple and only requires a regular volumetric adsorption apparatus to perform the actual measurement. Repeatability tests are carried out on the measurement and activation protocols to assess the precision of the technique, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) obtained is less than 5%. Based on the results obtained for these materials, the same CO adsorption protocol is studied for the sample using infrared spectroscopy, and a good correlation is found between the results of the volumetric measurements and the absorbance of the peak assigned to the Cu(I)-CO adducts. A linear model is built for this correlation, and the molar attenuation coefficient is obtained, allowing for spectrophotometric quantification. The good sensitivity of the spectrophotometric approach and the precision and simplicity of the volumetric approach form a complementary set of tools to quantitatively study Cu redox speciation in these materials at the laboratory scale, allowing for a wide range of Cu compositions to be accurately investigated.

Insights on a Hierarchical MFI Zeolite: A Combined Spectroscopic and Catalytic Approach for Exploring the Multilevel Porous System Down to the Active Sites.

The hierarchization of zeolites to overcome the major drawbacks related to molecular diffusion limitation in micropores is a popular concept in heterogeneous catalysis. Despite the constant increase of new synthesis strategies to produce such hierarchical systems, the deep knowledge of their structural arrangement and how the zeolitic lattice is organized in a multilevel porous system is often missing. This information is essential to design a structure, tuning the porosity and the distribution of easily accessible active sites, and successively controlling the catalytic properties. In the present work, the synthesis of one of the most sophisticated forms of the hierarchical ZSM-5 zeolite has been reproduced, obtaining two multilevel porous materials with different crystallinity degrees, with the final aim of investigating and clarifying the finest features of their active sites. For this purpose, an extended characterization step by means of a unique multitechnique approach has been performed, thus revealing the active site nature, abundance, and distribution. IR spectroscopy with different molecular probes and a targeted catalytic test based on the hydroconversion reaction of n-decane were the toolbox for disclosing how the MFI lattice takes part in the hierarchical structure and how it, working in synergy with the mesoporous system, confers to this material a totally new shape-size selectivity. Merging the information obtained for the synthesized hierarchical zeolite with the characterization results of two reference materials (a mesoporous aluminum-containing MCM-41 and a microporous commercial ZSM-5), it was possible to define an internal and external map of the pore network of this complex and unique molecular sieve, where strong Brønsted acidic sites are located at the mouth of the MFI micropores and, at the same time, exposed at the surface of the mesoporous channels. Hence, the possibility of easily releasing bulky products is ensured and the application possibilities of the MFI lattice are expanded beyond cracking reactions.

Scrutinizing the Pore Chemistry and the Importance of Cu(I) Defects in TCNQ-Loaded Cu3(BTC)2 by a Multitechnique Spectroscopic Approach.

Host-guest interactions control the fundamental processes in porous materials for many applications such as gas storage and catalysis. The study of these processes, however, is not trivial, even if the material is crystalline. In particular, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) represent a complex situation since guest molecules can interact with different parts of the organic linkers and the metal clusters and may alter the details of the pore structure and system properties. A prominent example is the so-called retrofitted MOF material TCNQ@Cu3(BTC)2 that has attracted a lot of attention due to its electronic properties induced by the host-guest interactions. Only recently, structural evidence has been presented for a bridging binding mode of TCNQ to two Cu paddlewheel units; however, many issues regarding the redox chemistry of Cu3(BTC)2 and TCNQ are currently unsolved. Herein, we report a powerful spectroscopic approach to study the host-guest chemistry of this material. Combining IR spectroscopy in the presence of CO and EPR spectroscopy, we found that the intrinsic Cu(I) defects of the host react with the guest, forming TCNQ radical anions. This chemistry has profound implications, in particular, with respect to the performance of TCNQ@Cu3(BTC)2 as an electronic conductor. A decreasing availability of open Cu(II) sites with increasing TCNQ loading proves the coordinative binding of TCNQ to the paddlewheel nodes, and a heterogeneous structure is formed with different TCNQ arrangements and pore environments at low TCNQ loadings. Finally, the combined use of spectroscopic characterization techniques has proven to be, in general, a powerful approach for studying the complex chemistry of host-guest materials.

Hybrid organic-inorganic silica gel carriers with controlled drug-delivery properties.

Pure and modified silica materials were synthesised by a sol-gel process and used as carrier for the controlled release of ibuprofen, selected as model drug. A one-step synthesis was optimised for the preparation of various silica-drug composites by using tetraethoxysilane and 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane as precursors at different molar ratios. The presence of aminopropyl groups on the silica surface influences the drug-delivery rate leading to a high degree the desorption process controlled.