Spatial and temporal variability of soil N2 O and CH4 fluxes along a degradation gradient in a palm swamp peat forest in the Peruvian Amazon.

Mauritia flexuosa palm swamp, the prevailing Peruvian Amazon peatland ecosystem, is extensively threatened by degradation. The unsustainable practice of cutting whole palms for fruit extraction modifies forest's structure and composition and eventually alters peat-derived greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We evaluated the spatiotemporal variability of soil N2 O and CH4 fluxes and environmental controls along a palm swamp degradation gradient formed by one undegraded site (Intact), one moderately degraded site (mDeg) and one heavily degraded site (hDeg). Microscale variability differentiated hummocks supporting live or cut palms from surrounding hollows. Macroscale analysis considered structural changes in vegetation and soil microtopography as impacted by degradation. Variables were monitored monthly over 3 years to evaluate intra- and inter-annual variability. Degradation induced microscale changes in N2 O and CH4 emission trends and controls. Site-scale average annual CH4 emissions were similar along the degradation gradient (225.6 ± 50.7, 160.5 ± 65.9 and 169.4 ± 20.7 kg C ha-1  year-1 at the Intact, mDeg and hDeg sites, respectively). Site-scale average annual N2 O emissions (kg N ha-1  year-1 ) were lower at the mDeg site (0.5 ± 0.1) than at the Intact (1.3 ± 0.6) and hDeg sites (1.1 ± 0.4), but the difference seemed linked to heterogeneous fluctuations in soil water-filled pore space (WFPS) along the forest complex rather than to degradation. Monthly and annual emissions were mainly controlled by variations in WFPS, water table level (WT) and net nitrification for N2 O; WT, air temperature and net nitrification for CH4 . Site-scale N2 O emissions remained steady over years, whereas CH4 emissions rose exponentially with increased precipitation. While the minor impact of degradation on palm swamp peatland N2 O and CH4 fluxes should be tested elsewhere, the evidenced large and variable CH4 emissions and significant N2 O emissions call for improved modeling of GHG dynamics in tropical peatlands to test their response to climate changes.

Effects of land use change and seasonality of precipitation on soil nitrogen in a dry tropical forest area in the Western Llanos of Venezuela.

We evaluated changes of different soil nitrogen forms (total N, available ammonium and nitrate, total N in microbial biomass, and soil N mineralization) after conversion of semideciduous dry tropical forest in 5- and 18-year-old pastures (YP and OP, resp.) in the western Llanos of Venezuela. This evaluation was made at early rainy season, at end rainy season, and during dry season. With few exceptions, no significant differences were detected in the total N in the three study sites. Compared to forest soils, YP showed ammonium losses from 4.2 to 62.9% and nitrate losses from 20.0 to 77.8%, depending on the season of the year. In OP, the ammonium content increased from 50.0 to 69.0% at the end of the rainy season and decreased during the dry season between 25.0 and 55.5%, whereas the nitrate content increased significantly at early rainy season. The net mineralization and the potentially mineralizable N were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in OP than in forest and YP, which would indicate a better quality of the substrate in OP for mineralization. The mineralization rate constant was higher in YP than in forest and OP. This could be associated with a reduced capacity of these soils to preserve the available nitrogen.

Changes in structure and composition of evergreen forests on an altitudinal gradient in the Venezuelan Guayana shield.

There have been several ecological studies in forests of the Guayana Shield, but so far none had examined the changes in structure and composition of evergreen forests with altitude. This study describes and analyzes the structure, species composition and soil characteristics of forest stands at different altitudinal zones in Southeastern Venezuelan Guayana, in order to explain the patterns and the main factors that determine the structure and composition of evergreen forests along the altitudinal gradient. Inventories of 3 948 big (>10cm DBH) and 1 328 small (5-10cm DBH) woody stems were carried out in eleven plots, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0ha, along a 188km long transect with elevations between 290 and 1 395masl. It has been found that 1) hemiepihytes become more dominant and lianas reduce their dominance with increasing altitude and 2) the forest structure in the study area is size-dependent. Five families and 12 genera represented only 9% of the total number of families and genera, respectively, recorded troughout the gradient, but the two groups of taxa comprised more than 50% of the Importance Value (the sum of the relative density and the relative dominance) of all measured stems. Moreover, the results suggest that low species richness seems to be associated with the dominance of one or few species. Stand-level wood density (WD) of trees decreased significantly with increasing elevation. WD is an indicator of trees'life history strategy. Its decline suggests a change in the functional composition of the forest with increasing altitude. The Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) indicated a distinction of the studied forests on the basis of their altitudinal levels and geographic location, and revealed different ecological responses by the forests, to environmental variables along the altitudinal gradient. The variation in species composition, in terms of basal area among stands, was controlled primarily by elevation and secondarily by rainfall and soil conditions. There are other interacting factors not considered in this study like disturbance regime, biological interactions, productivity, and dispersal history, which could affect the structure and composition of the forests in the altitudinal gradient. In conclusion, it appears that the structural and floristic variability observed in the studied transect is produced by a combination of different climates and randomly expressed local processes interacting across a complex physical landscape.

Degradation-driven changes in fine root carbon stocks, productivity, mortality, and decomposition rates in a palm swamp peat forest of the Peruvian Amazon.

BACKGROUND: Amazon palm swamp peatlands are major carbon (C) sinks and reservoirs. In Peru, this ecosystem is widely threatened owing to the recurrent practice of cutting Mauritia flexuosa palms for fruit harvesting. Such degradation could significantly damage peat deposits by altering C fluxes through fine root productivity, mortality, and decomposition rates which contribute to and regulate peat accumulation. Along a same peat formation, we studied an undegraded site (Intact), a moderately degraded site (mDeg) and a heavily degraded site (hDeg) over 11 months. Fine root C stocks and fluxes were monthly sampled by sequential coring. Concomitantly, fine root decomposition was investigated using litter bags. In the experimental design, fine root stocks and dynamics were assessed separately according to vegetation type (M. flexuosa palm and other tree species) and M. flexuosa age class. Furthermore, results obtained from individual palms and trees were site-scaled by using forest composition and structure. RESULTS: At the scale of individuals, fine root C biomass in M. flexuosa adults was higher at the mDeg site than at the Intact and hDeg sites, while in trees it was lowest at the hDeg site. Site-scale fine root biomass (Mg C ha-1) was higher at the mDeg site (0.58 ± 0.05) than at the Intact (0.48 ± 0.05) and hDeg sites (0.32 ± 0.03). Site-scale annual fine root mortality rate was not significantly different between sites (3.4 ± 1.3, 2.0 ± 0.8, 1.5 ± 0.7 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 at the Intact, mDeg, and hDeg sites) while productivity (same unit) was lower at the hDeg site (1.5 ± 0.8) than at the Intact site (3.7 ± 1.2), the mDeg site being intermediate (2.3 ± 0.9). Decomposition was slow with 63.5-74.4% of mass remaining after 300 days and it was similar among sites and vegetation types. CONCLUSIONS: The significant lower fine root C stock and annual productivity rate at the hDeg site than at the Intact site suggests a potential for strong degradation to disrupt peat accretion. These results stress the need for a sustainable management of these forests to maintain their C sink function.

Changes in structure and composition of evergreen forests on an altitudinal gradient in the Venezuelan Guayana Shield

There have been several ecological studies in forests of the Guayana Shield, but so far none had examined the changes in structure and composition of evergreen forests with altitude. This study describes and analyzes the structure, species composition and soil characteristics of forest stands at different altitudinal zones in Southeastern Venezuelan Guayana, in order to explain the patterns and the main factors that determine the structure and composition of evergreen forests along the altitudinal gradient. Inventories of 3 948 big (>10cm DBH) and 1 328 small (5-10cm DBH) woody stems were carried out in eleven plots, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0ha, along a 188km long transect with elevations between 290 and 1 395masl. It has been found that 1) hemiepihytes become more dominant and lianas reduce their dominance with increasing altitude and 2) the forest structure in the study area is size-dependent. Five families and 12 genera represented only 9% of the total number of families and genera, respectively, recorded troughout the gradient, but the two groups of taxa comprised more than 50% of the Importance Value (the sum of the relative density and the relative dominance) of all measured stems. Moreover, the results suggest that low species richness seems to be associated with the dominance of one or few species. Stand-level wood density (WD) of trees decreased significantly with increasing elevation. WD is an indicator of trees’life history strategy. Its decline suggests a change in the functional composition of the forest with increasing altitude. The Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) indicated a distinction of the studied forests on the basis of their altitudinal levels and geographic location, and revealed different ecological responses by the forests, to environmental variables along the altitudinal gradient. The variation in species composition, in terms of basal area among stands, was controlled primarily by elevation and secondarily ...

A pesar de los diversos estudios ecológicos realizados en los bosques del Escudo de Guayana, ninguno de ellos había analizado hasta ahora los cambios en la composición y estructura de bosques siempreverdes que ocurren al incrementar la altitud. Con el fin de identificar patrones y factores determinantes de la estructura y la composición de bosques en un gradiente altitudinal (290-1 395msnm) en el sudeste de Venezuela se realizaron inventarios de 3 948 fustes grandes (>10cm DAP) y 1 328 pequeños (5-10cm DAP) en once parcelas a lo largo de un transecto de 188km. Con el incremento de la altitud, el área basal aumenta en las hemiepífitas y disminuye en las lianas. Las familias y los géneros más importantes representaron una reducida proporción del total de taxones, pero abarcaron más del 50% del Valor de Importancia. Bajos valores de riqueza se asocian con la dominancia de pocas especies. La densidad de madera decrece significativamente a mayor altitud, y sugiere un cambio en la composición funcional. Existen diferentes respuestas ecológicas de los rodales ante cambios físico-ambientales. La variación de la composición de especies en el gradiente fue controlada por altitud, lluvia y condiciones edáficas; pero se desconoce el efecto de otros factores no considerados como régimen de perturbaciones, interacciones biológicas, productividad e historia de dispersión. La variabilidad observada en la estructura y la composición de bosques en el gradiente parece ser un resultado del efecto combinado de diferentes climas y procesos locales aleatorios que interactúan en un complejo paisaje.

Seedlings dynamics in undisturbed and adjacent fire disturbed forest in the Gran Sabana, southern Venezuela

En la Gran Sabana, al sureste de Venezuela, la conversión de extensas áreas boscosas a un mosaico de bosque, vegetación arbustiva y sabana (“sabanización”) es un asunto ambiental crítico asociado con incendios forestales. Poco se conoce acerca del comportamiento de la comunidad de plántulas en bosques no perturbados y en bosques afectados por el fuego en la región. El reclutamiento, supervivencia y crecimiento de plántulas fue seguido durante un período de 6 años en cuadratas permanentes establecidas en bosque no perturbado y bosque adyacente perturbado por el fuego (secundario). Al comienzo del estudio, el bosque secundario mostró valores menores (P<0,05) de abundancia de plántulas y riqueza de plántulas arbóreas que el no perturbado. La abundancia y riqueza de especies de plántulas arbóreas en ambos tipos de bosque variaron muy poco a lo largo del periodo de estudio, lo cual está asociado con el balance parcial entre tasa de mortalidad de plántulas marcadas al inicio del estudio (44-66 por ciento) y tasa de supervivencia de nuevas plántulas arbóreas reclutadas (47-54 por ciento). Al final del estudio ~80 por ciento de las plántulas reclutadas en el bosque no perturbado correspondió a especies arbóreas, mientras que en el secundario la proporción de plántulas arbóreas (47 por ciento) y no arbóreas (53 por ciento) fue similar. El crecimiento en altura durante el período de 6 años fue considerablemente mayor en el bosque secundario que en el no perturbado (P<0,05). Se concluye que en el bosque no perturbado el proceso de sucesión esta relativamente paralizado, mientras que en el bosque secundario este proceso avanza muy lentamente.

Estructura y composición florística de bosques secos y sabanas en los Llanos Orientales del Orinoco, Venezuela / Structure and floristic composition of dry forests and savannas in the Llanos Orientales of the Orinoco river, Venezuela / Estrutura e composição florística de bosques secos e savanas nas planícies Orientais do rio Orinoco, Venezuela

En los Llanos Orientales de Venezuela se realizan actividades agropecuarias, forestales y de exploración y explotación petrolera con impactos ambientales negativos sobre la vegetación. Para minimizar esos impactos y justificar la importancia de preservar áreas representativas de comunidades frágiles, se requiere información florística y ecológica detallada de las comunidades vegetales locales. Se cartografió y caracterizó florística y estructuralmente la vegetación en un área ubicada dentro de la zona de influencia de la Faja Bituminosa del Orinoco. La cobertura del área es: sabanas arbustivas densas (54,8%) y ralas (18,4%), morichales (1%), y bosques ribereños, deciduos y semideciduos (25,8%). La distribución de bosques, morichales y sabanas parece estar relacionada con la topografía y el gradiente de disponibilidad de humedad en los suelos, pues bosques y morichales se presentan como franjas continuas y angostas a lo largo de los ríos, mientras que las sabanas arbustivas predominan en las partes más altas del relieve. Los bosques y morichales mostraron alta heterogeneidad estructural y florística, lo cual parece estar asociado con características de los suelos y disponibilidad de agua. Las sabanas presentaron diferencias estructurales y florísticas entre sí, asociadas a diferencias en profundidad y características químicas del suelo. Pocas especies presentaron altos valores de importancia (IVI) en cada tipo de vegetación, algo común en otras zonas del neotrópico. Los bosques y morichales deberían tener alta prioridad para la conservación, dada la protección que brindan a los suelos y aguas, la escasa superficie que ocupan y la alta biodiversidad que albergan.

In the Llanos Orientales of Venezuela, agricultural activities, forestry and petroleum exploration and exploitation cause negative environmental impacts on the vegetation. In order to minimize such impacts and to justify the importance of preserving representative areas of fragile communities, detailed ecological and floristic information is required regarding the local vegetal communities. In an area located within the influence zone of the bituminous strip of the Orinoco, the vegetation was mapped and characterized floristically and structurally. The area is covered by dense (54.8%) and sparse (18.4%) shrub savannas, palm swamp forests or "morichales" (1%), and riparian and deciduous and semideciduous forests (25.8%). The distribution of forests, morichales and savannas appears to be related with the topography and the gradient of soil humidity availability, since forests and morichales are present in the form of continuous and narrow strips along rivers, while the savannas predominate in the higher parts of the relief. Forests and morichales showed high floristic and structural heterogeneity, which can be associated with soil characteristics and water availability. Savannas showed structural and floristic differences between them, probably due to differences in soil depth and chemical characteristics. Few species of each vegetation type presented a high importance value (IVI), which seems to be something common in other neotropical zones. Forests and morichales should be given high priority for conservation because of the protection they provide to the soils and waters, the little surface that they occupy, and the high biodiversity these forests contain.

Nas Planícies Orientais da Venezuela se realizam atividades agropecuárias, florestais e de pesquisa e exploração petroleira com impactos ambientais negativos sobre a vegetação. Para minimizar esses impactos e justificar a importância de preservar áreas representativas de comunidades frágeis, se requer informação florística e ecológica detalhada das comunidades vegetais locais. Cartografou-se e caracterizou-se florística e estruturalmente a vegetação em uma área situada dentro da zona de influência da Faixa Bituminosa do Orinoco. A cobertura da área é: savanas arbustivas densas (54,8%) e ralas (18,4%), buritizais (1%), e bosques ribeirinhos e bosques decíduos e semi-decíduos (25,8%). A distribuição de bosques, buritizais e savanas parece estar relacionada com a topografia e o gradiente de disponibilidade de umidade nos solos, pois bosques e buritizais se apresentam como franjas continuas e estreitas ao longo dos rios, enquanto que as savanas arbustivas predominam nas partes mais altas do relevo. Os bosques e buritizais mostraram alta heterogeneidade estrutural e florística, o qual parece estar associado com características dos solos e disponibilidade de água. As savanas apresentaram diferenças estruturais e florísticas entre si, associadas a diferenças em profundidade e características químicas do solo. Poucas espécies apresentaram altos valores de importância (IVI) em cada tipo de vegetação, algo comum em outras zonas do neotrópico. Os bosques e buritizais deveriam ter alta prioridade para a conservação, dada a proteção que brindam aos solos e águas, a escassa superfície que ocupam e a alta biodiversidade que albergam.

Litteral and nutrient input in undisturbed and adjacent fire disturbed forests of the Gran Sabana southern Venezuela

La caída de hojarasca y el retorno de nutrientes fueron estudiados en un bosque primario (bosque alto), un bosque ligeramente afectado por el fuego (bosque medio con baja abundancia de residuos carbonizados) y un bosque fuertemente afectado por el fuego (bosque bajo con abundantes troncos carbonizados sobre el suelo) en la Gran Sabana, al sureste de Venezuela. El propósito de este estudio fue determinar si antiguas perturbaciones por fuego que afectaron la estructura de los bosques están afectando el retorno de hojarasca y nutrientes desde la biomasa hacia la superficie del suelo. Los resultados no mostraron diferencias significativas (P>0,05) en la producción anual de hojarasca entre el bosque alto (5,2Mgúha-1úaño-1) y el bosque medio (5,7Mgúha?1úaño?1), indicando que perturbaciones menores no afectan la productividad del dosel. La producción anual de hojarasca en el bosque bajo (3,9Mgúha-1úaño-1) fue significativamente mas baja que en los bosques alto y medio (P<0,05). Las diferencias en la producción de hojarasca entre el bosque bajo y los bosques alto y medio fueron sorprendentemente pequeñas si se considera que el bosque bajo estaba muy degradado, con 74-79 por ciento menos árboles y 96-97 por ciento menos biomasa que los bosques alto y medio, respectivamente. Esto sugiere que perturbaciones por fuego que afectaron considerablemente los atributos estructurales del bosque, no están influenciando sustancialmente la productividad del dosel. Las entradas de nutrientes a través de la hojarasca fueron bajas en todos los tipos de bosque, con bajas tasas de retorno de la hojarasca a la superficie del suelo y bajas concentraciones de nutrientes en esa hojarasca. Las entradas anuales de N y P siguieron la misma tendencia que la entrada anual de hojarasca, mientras que las entradas anuales de Ca, K y Mg fueron bastante variables

Variaciones temporales en cantidad de semillas en el suelo y en lluvia de semillas en un gradiente bosque-sabana en la Gran Sabana Venezuela / Temporal variations in soil seed number and in seed rain in a forest-savanna sequence in the Gran Sabana Venezuela

La variacion estacional de semillas en el suelo y la lluvia de semillas fueron estudiadas a lo largo de un gradiente bosque-sabana conformado por bosque primario (1: bosque maduro), bosque ligeramente afectado por el fuego (2: bosque secundario), bosque fuertemente afectado por el fuego (3: matorral) y sabana abierta (4), en la Gran Sabana, Venezuela. La cantidad de semillas en el suelo fue evaluada colectando 10 muestras del estrato orgánico o de los primeros 10cm del suelo con una cuadrata de 20 x 20 cm, durante los períodos lluvioso y seco. La lluvia de semillas fue evaluada colectando quincenalmente las semillas caídas en 10 trampas de 90 x 40 cm. Durante el período seco la cantidad de semillas en el suelo de la sabana fue menor (P<0,05) que en aquel de 1, 2 y 3. Durante el período lluvioso, la cantidad de semillas en el suelo del bosque secundario fue mayor (P<0,05) que en 1, 3 y 4. La lluvia de semillas en el bosque maduro fue baja y variable, sin máximos definidos. El bosque secundario mostró una lluvia de semillas ligeramente mayor que la del bosque maduro, con máximo en octubre y sin producción entre noviembre y enero. En el matorral la lluvia de semillas fue alta, con máximos en marzo y mayo, lo que puede estar relacionado con el carácter pionero de las especies de esa comunidad. La lluvia de semillas en la sabana fue ligeramente mayor que en 1 y 2, con máximo en febrero. En todos los tipos de vegetación se observó heterogeneidad espacial en el número de semillas en suelo y en la lluvia anual de semillas lo cual pareciera estar relacionado con los arreglos de las especies dentro de cada comunidad y con las diferencias en sus periodos reproductivos. Las perturbaciones parecieran acelerar los procesos de producción y germinación de semillas en los suelos de la Gran Sabana