The switching mechanism of the bacterial rotary motor combines tight regulation with inherent flexibility.

Regulatory switches are wide spread in many biological systems. Uniquely among them, the switch of the bacterial flagellar motor is not an on/off switch but rather controls the motor's direction of rotation in response to binding of the signaling protein CheY. Despite its extensive study, the molecular mechanism underlying this switch has remained largely unclear. Here, we resolved the functions of each of the three CheY-binding sites at the switch in E. coli, as well as their different dependencies on phosphorylation and acetylation of CheY. Based on this, we propose that CheY motor switching activity is potentiated upon binding to the first site. Binding of potentiated CheY to the second site produces unstable switching and at the same time enables CheY binding to the third site, an event that stabilizes the switched state. Thereby, this mechanism exemplifies a unique combination of tight motor regulation with inherent switching flexibility.

Imaging of Single Dye-Labeled Chemotaxis Proteins in Live Bacteria Using Electroporation.

For the last 2 decades, the use of genetically fused fluorescent proteins (FPs) has greatly contributed to the study of chemotactic signaling in E. coli, including the activation of the response regulator protein CheY and its interaction with the flagellar motor. However, this approach suffers from a number of limitations, both biological and biophysical. For example, not all fusions are fully functional when fused to a bulky FP, which can have a similar molecular weight to its fused counterpart. FPs may interfere with the native interactions of the protein, and their chromophores have low brightness and photostability, and fast photobleaching rates. Electroporation allows for internalization of purified CheY proteins labeled with organic dyes into E. coli cells in controllable concentrations. Using fluorescence video microscopy, it is possible to observe single CheY molecules diffusing within cells and interacting with the sensory clusters and the flagellar motors in real time.

Single-molecule imaging of electroporated dye-labelled CheY in live Escherichia coli.

For the past two decades, the use of genetically fused fluorescent proteins (FPs) has greatly contributed to the study of chemotactic signalling in Escherichia coli including the activation of the response regulator protein CheY and its interaction with the flagellar motor. However, this approach suffers from a number of limitations, both biological and biophysical: for example, not all fusions are fully functional when fused to a bulky FP, which can have a similar molecular weight to its fused counterpart; they may interfere with the native interactions of the protein and the chromophores of FPs have low brightness and photostability and fast photobleaching rates. A recently developed technique for the electroporation of fluorescently labelled proteins in live bacteria has enabled us to bypass these limitations and study the in vivo behaviour of CheY at the single-molecule level. Here we show that purified CheY proteins labelled with organic dyes can be internalized into E. coli cells in controllable concentrations and imaged with video fluorescence microscopy. The use of this approach is illustrated by showing single CheY molecules diffusing within cells and interacting with the sensory clusters and the flagellar motors in real time.This article is part of the themed issue 'The new bacteriology'.