GluN2D-Containing N-methyl-d-Aspartate Receptors Mediate Synaptic Transmission in Hippocampal Interneurons and Regulate Interneuron Activity.

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are ionotropic glutamatergic receptors that have been implicated in learning, development, and neuropathological conditions. They are typically composed of GluN1 and GluN2A-D subunits. Whereas a great deal is known about the role of GluN2A- and GluN2B-containing NMDARs, much less is known about GluN2D-containing NMDARs. Here we explore the subunit composition of synaptic NMDARs on hippocampal interneurons. GluN2D mRNA was detected by single-cell PCR and in situ hybridization in diverse interneuron subtypes in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. The GluN2D subunit was detectable by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry in all subfields of the hippocampus in young and adult mice. In whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from acute hippocampal slices, (+)-CIQ, the active enantiomer of the positive allosteric modulator CIQ, significantly enhanced the amplitude of the NMDAR component of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) in CA1 interneurons but not in pyramidal cells. (+)-CIQ had no effect in slices from Grin2d-/- mice, suggesting that GluN2D-containing NMDARs participate in excitatory synaptic transmission onto hippocampal interneurons. The time course of the NMDAR component of the mEPSC was unaffected by (+)-CIQ potentiation and was not accelerated in slices from Grin2d-/- mice compared with wild-type, suggesting that GluN2D does not detectably slow the NMDAR EPSC time course at this age. (+)-CIQ increased the activity of CA1 interneurons as detected by the rate and net charge transfer of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs) recorded from CA1 pyramidal cells. These data provide evidence that interneurons contain synaptic NMDARs possessing a GluN2D subunit, which can influence interneuron function and signal processing.

Chloride is an Agonist of Group II and III Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors.

The elemental anion chloride is generally considered a passive participant in neuronal excitability, and has never been shown to function as an agonist in its own right. We show that the antagonist-mediated, glutamate-independent inverse agonism of group II and III metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors results from inhibition of chloride-mediated activation. In silico molecular modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, and functional assays demonstrate (1) that chloride is an agonist of mGlu3, mGlu4, mGlu6, and mGlu8 receptors with its own orthosteric site, and (2) that chloride is not an agonist of mGlu2 receptors. Molecular modeling-predicted and site-directed mutagenesis supported that this unique property of mGlu2 receptors results from a single divergent amino acid, highlighting a molecular switch for chloride insensitivity that is transduced through an arginine flip. Ultimately, these results suggest that activation of group II and III mGlu receptors is mediated not only by glutamate, but also by physiologically relevant concentrations of chloride.

Structural analysis of CXCR4 - Antagonist interactions using saturation-transfer double-difference NMR.

CXCR4 is a GPCR involved in leukocyte trafficking. Small molecule antagonists of the receptor may treat inflammatory disease, cancer and HIV. Here we probe the binding of a tetrahydroisoquinoline-based antagonist (TIQ-10) to CXCR4 using saturation transfer double-difference (STDD) NMR. STDD spectra were acquired using extracts from Chinese Hamster Ovary cells expressing membrane-embedded CXCR4. The experiments demonstrate competitive binding between TIQ-10 and established antagonists and provide the TIQ-10 - CXCR4 binding epitope. Molecular modeling of TIQ-10 into the binding pocket provides a pose consistent with STDD-derived interactions. This study paves the way for future investigations of GPCR-ligand interactions in a biological milieu for use in chemical biology, biochemistry, structural biology, and rational drug design.

A real-time method for measuring cAMP production modulated by Gαi/o-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptors.

Group II and group III metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that inhibit adenylyl cyclase via activation of Gαi/o. The purpose of this study was to design a universal method that overcomes previous challenges in consistently measuring group II and group III mGlu-receptor (mGluR) activation in stably transfected systems. In Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably transfected with the GloSensor cAMP biosensor, we optimized conditions for simple and highly reproducible (<5% S.E.M.) measurements of cAMP in real time. The GloSensor cAMP biosensor is a recombinant firefly luciferase conjugated to a cAMP-binding domain, where cAMP binding promotes a conformational shift within the GloSensor protein, inducing luciferase activity; cAMP levels are positively correlated with light output resulting from the luciferase-mediated breakdown of d-luciferin. Each group II and group III mGluR was then stably transfected into the CHO-GloSensor cell line, and experimental conditions were optimized for each receptor. During assay optimization, we observed ion sensitivity of several receptors and inverse agonist activity of the antagonist, LY341495 [2-[(1S,2S)-2-carboxycyclopropyl]-3-(9H-xanthen-9-yl)-d-alanine]. Although these phenomena have been previously reported, they remain poorly understood, emphasizing the GloSensor assay as an important tool with which to study group II and group III mGlu receptors. Our results highlight many advantages of using the GloSensor method for measuring activation of group II and group III mGlu receptors, and they further suggest that corresponding methods designed to measure activation of any Gαi/o- or Gαs-coupled GPCR will be similarly advantageous.

Ligand bias at metabotropic glutamate 1a receptors: molecular determinants that distinguish ß-arrestin-mediated from G protein-mediated signaling.

The metabotropic glutamate 1a (mGlu1a) receptor is a G protein-coupled receptor linked with phosphoinositide (PI) hydrolysis and with ß-arrestin-1-mediated sustained extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation and cytoprotective signaling. Previously, we reported the existence of ligand bias at this receptor, inasmuch as glutamate induced both effects, whereas quisqualate induced only PI hydrolysis. In the current study, we showed that mGlu1 receptor agonists such as glutamate, aspartate, and l-cysteate were unbiased and activated both signaling pathways, whereas quisqualate and (S)-3,5-dihydroxyphenylglycine stimulated only PI hydrolysis. Competitive antagonists inhibited only PI hydrolysis and not the ß-arrestin-dependent pathway, whereas a noncompetitive mGlu1 receptor antagonist blocked both pathways. Mutational analysis of the ligand binding domain of the mGlu1a receptor revealed that Thr188 residues were essential for PI hydrolysis but not for protective signaling, whereas Arg323 and Lys409 residues were required for ß-arrestin-1-mediated sustained ERK phosphorylation and cytoprotective signaling but not for PI hydrolysis. Therefore, the mechanism of ligand bias appears to involve different modes of agonist interactions with the receptor ligand binding domain. Although some mGlu1a receptor agonists are biased toward PI hydrolysis, we identified two endogenous compounds, glutaric acid and succinic acid, as new mGlu1 receptor agonists that are fully biased toward ß-arrestin-mediated protective signaling. Pharmacological studies indicated that, in producing the two effects, glutamate interacted in two distinct ways with mGlu1 receptors, inasmuch as competitive mGlu1 receptor antagonists that blocked PI hydrolysis did not inhibit cytoprotective signaling. Quisqualate, which is biased toward PI hydrolysis, failed to inhibit glutamate-induced protection, and glutaric acid, which is biased toward protection, did not interfere with glutamate-induced PI hydrolysis. Taken together, these data indicate that ligand bias at mGlu1 receptors is attributable to different modes of receptor-glutamate interactions, which are differentially coupled to PI hydrolysis and ß-arrestin-mediated cytoprotective signaling, and they reveal the existence of new endogenous agonists acting at mGlu1 receptors.

Triheteromeric GluN1/GluN2A/GluN2C NMDARs with Unique Single-Channel Properties Are the Dominant Receptor Population in Cerebellar Granule Cells.

NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) are ligand-gated ion channels that mediate excitatory neurotransmission in the CNS. Here we describe functional and single-channel properties of triheteromeric GluN1/GluN2A/GluN2C receptors, which contain two GluN1, one GluN2A, and one GluN2C subunits. This NMDAR has three conductance levels and opens in bursts similar to GluN1/GluN2A receptors but with a single-channel open time and open probability reminiscent of GluN1/GluN2C receptors. The deactivation time course of GluN1/GluN2A/GluN2C receptors is intermediate to GluN1/GluN2A and GluN1/GluN2C receptors and is not dominated by GluN2A or GluN2C. We show that triheteromeric GluN1/GluN2A/GluN2C receptors are the predominant NMDARs in cerebellar granule cells and propose that co-expression of GluN2A and GluN2C in cerebellar granule cells occludes cell surface expression of diheteromeric GluN1/GluN2C receptors. This new insight into neuronal GluN1/GluN2A/GluN2C receptors highlights the complexity of NMDAR signaling in the CNS.

A Novel Negative Allosteric Modulator Selective for GluN2C/2D-Containing NMDA Receptors Inhibits Synaptic Transmission in Hippocampal Interneurons.

N-Methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are ionotropic glutamate receptors that mediate excitatory synaptic transmission and have been implicated in numerous neurological disorders. NMDARs typically comprise two GluN1 and two GluN2 subunits. The four GluN2 subtypes (GluN2A-GluN2D) have distinct functional properties and gene expression patterns, which contribute to diverse functional roles for NMDARs in the brain. Here, we present a series of GluN2C/2D-selective negative allosteric modulators built around a N-aryl benzamide (NAB) core. The prototypical compound, NAB-14, is >800-fold selective for recombinant GluN2C/GluN2D over GluN2A/GluN2B in Xenopus oocytes and has an IC50 value of 580 nM at recombinant GluN2D-containing receptors expressed in mammalian cells. NAB-14 inhibits triheteromeric (GluN1/GluN2A/GluN2C) NMDARs with modestly reduced potency and efficacy compared to diheteromeric (GluN1/GluN2C/GluN2C) receptors. Site-directed mutagenesis suggests that structural determinants for NAB-14 inhibition reside in the GluN2D M1 transmembrane helix. NAB-14 inhibits GluN2D-mediated synaptic currents in rat subthalamic neurons and mouse hippocampal interneurons, but has no effect on synaptic transmission in hippocampal pyramidal neurons, which do not express GluN2C or GluN2D. This series possesses some druglike physical properties and modest brain permeability in rat and mouse. Altogether, this work identifies a new series of negative allosteric modulators that are valuable tools for studying GluN2C- and GluN2D-containing NMDAR function in brain circuits, and suggests that the series has the potential to be developed into therapies for selectively modulating brain circuits involving the GluN2C and GluN2D subunits.

Two newly identified exons in human GRM1 express a novel splice variant of metabotropic glutamate 1 receptor.

To date, five human metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) 1 receptor splice variants (1a, 1b, 1d, 1f, and 1g) have been described, all of which involve alternative C-terminal splicing. mGlu1a receptor contains a long C-terminal domain (341 amino acids), which has been shown to scaffold with several proteins and contribute to the structure of the post-synaptic density. However, several shorter mGlu1 receptor splice variants lack the sequence required for these interactions, and no major functional differences between these short splice variants have been described. By using RT-PCR we have shown that two human melanoma cell lines express both mGlu1a and mGlu1b receptors. In addition, using 3'RACE, we identified three previously unknown mGlu1 receptor mRNAs. Two differ in the length of their 3' untranslated region (UTR), and encode the same predicted protein as mGlu1g receptor-the shortest of all mGlu1 receptor splice variants. The third mRNA, named mGlu1h, encodes a predicted C-terminal splice variant of 10 additional amino acids. mGlu1h mRNA was observed in two different melanoma cell lines and is overexpressed, compared with melanoma precursor cells, melanocytes. Most importantly, this new splice variant, mGlu1h receptor, is encoded by two previously unidentified exons located within the human GRM1 gene. Additionally, these new exons are found exclusively within the GRM1 genes of higher primates and are highly conserved. Therefore, we hypothesize that mGlu1h receptors play a distinct role in primate glutamatergic signaling.