Impact of Self-Blame on Cognitive Processing Therapy: A Comparison of Treatment Outcomes.

Research suggests that cognitive processing therapy (CPT) may be a particularly well-suited intervention for trauma survivors who endorse self-blame; however, no study has examined the impact of self-blame on response to CPT. Accordingly, the current study compared response to CPT between two groups of veterans seeking residential treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In one group, participants endorsed low self-blame at pretreatment (n = 133) and in the other group, participants endorsed high self-blame (n = 133). Results from multilevel modeling analysis suggest that both groups experienced significant reductions in PTSD symptoms as measured by the PTSD Checklist, B = -1.58, SE = 0.11; 95% CI [-1.78, -1.37]; t(1654) = -14.97, p < .001. After controlling for pretreatment symptom severity and additional covariates, there was no difference in treatment response between the low- and high-self-blame groups, Time × Self-blame interaction: B = 0.18, SE = 0.12; 95% CI = [-0.06, 0.42]; t(1646) = 1.49, p = .138. This suggests that CPT is an effective treatment for individuals exposed to trauma, regardless of level of self-blame.

Response to Cognitive Processing Therapy in Veterans With and Without Obstructive Sleep Apnea.

Recent studies have called attention to the need for enhancing treatment outcome in trauma-focused psychotherapies, such as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), with veterans. Given the prevalence of posttraumatic-related sleep disturbances, and the role of sleep in emotional learning and processing, sleep quality may be a target for improving CPT outcome. Elevated rates of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) have been reported in samples of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD); however, the impact of OSA on response to CPT is unclear. In this study, CPT outcome was examined in veterans with and without a diagnosis of OSA. Following chart review, 68 OSA-positive and 276 OSA-negative veterans were identified. Generalized estimating equations were used to compare between-group differences in weekly self-reported PTSD symptomatology. The OSA-positive veterans reported greater PTSD severity over the course of treatment and at posttreatment compared with veterans without OSA (B = -0.657). Additionally, OSA-positive veterans with access to continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy reported less PTSD severity relative to OSA-positive veterans without access to CPAP (B = -0.421). Apnea appears to be a contributing factor to the reduced effectiveness of evidence-based psychotherapy for veterans with PTSD; however, preliminary evidence indicates that CPAP therapy may help mitigate the impact of OSA on treatment outcome.

Comparing effectiveness of CPT to CPT-C among U.S. Veterans in an interdisciplinary residential PTSD/TBI treatment program.

Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) is a leading cognitive-behavioral treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a front-line intervention according to the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs treatment guidelines. The original CPT protocol entails the creation of a written trauma account and use of cognitive therapy. Cognitive processing therapy-cognitive therapy only (CPT-C) does not involve a written account and in a previous study resulted in faster symptom improvement and fewer dropouts than standard CPT. This study sought to replicate these findings by comparing the effectiveness of CPT to CPT-C in a sample of 86 U.S. male veterans receiving treatment in a PTSD residential program for individuals with a history of traumatic brain injury. CPT and CPT-C were delivered in a combined individual and group format as part of a comprehensive, interdisciplinary treatment program. Outcomes were self- and clinician-reported PTSD and self-reported depression symptoms. Multilevel analysis revealed no significant difference for PTSD symptoms, but did show a greater decrease in depression at posttreatment (d = 0.63) for those receiving CPT. When an experiment-wise α correction was applied, this effect did not remain significant.

Cognitive behavioral treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: empirical foundation and new directions.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is currently the most empirically supported intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and includes both specific manualized treatments (e.g., cognitive processing therapy, prolonged exposure) and less standardized applications. As CBT for PTSD has become increasingly popular, more advanced questions have emerged regarding its use, including how existing treatments might be enhanced. In the current review, we aimed to discover recent trends in the CBT for PTSD literature by applying rigorous search criteria to peer-reviewed articles published from 2009 to 2012. Results of the 14 studies that were identified are discussed, and future directions for research are suggested.

Comparing response to cognitive processing therapy in military veterans with subthreshold and threshold posttraumatic stress disorder.

Research suggests that subthreshold posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology is associated with increased risk for psychological and functional impairment, including increased risk for suicidal ideation. However, it does not appear that any studies to date have investigated whether subthreshold PTSD can effectively be treated with evidence-based, trauma-focused treatment. Accordingly, we tested response to cognitive processing therapy (CPT) in 2 groups of military veterans receiving care at a VA outpatient specialty clinic, 1 with subthreshold PTSD at pretreatment (n = 51) and the other with full, diagnostic PTSD (n = 483). Multilevel analysis revealed that both groups experienced a significant decrease in PTSD symptoms over the course of therapy (the full and subthreshold PTSD groups experienced an average decrease of 1.79 and 1.52 points, respectively, on the PTSD Checklist with each increment of time, which was coded from 0 at pretreatment to 13 at posttreatment). After controlling for pretreatment symptom severity, a between-groups difference was not found. These results suggest that CPT is an effective form of treatment among military veterans, and that its effectiveness does not differ between subthreshold and threshold groups.

What is the typical response to sexual assault? Reply to Bonanno (2013).

We respond to Bonanno's (2013) comment on our longitudinal evaluation of sexual assault survivors. Bonanno posits that minor disruption in functioning is the modal response to any stressor or trauma, yet most women we studied had marked initial symptoms in the immediate months following assault, which gradually improved over time. We argue that sexual violence is one example of intentional and malicious victimization, which differs from other experiences studied by Bonanno, such as spinal cord injury. Our study also differed from most previous studies in that it specifically examined the acute reactions period, which is the only period that can distinguish between resilience and recovery: Both trajectories ultimately involve good adaptation, but are distinguished by the degree of initial postevent disruption. We address Bonanno's contention that our results should be dismissed on methodological and statistical grounds. Our findings suggest that prior research about the frequency of resilience may in part be confounded by the degree and type of stress exposure.

Trajectories of PTSD symptoms following sexual assault: is resilience the modal outcome?

Theoretical frameworks positing qualitatively distinct trajectories of posttrauma outcome have received initial empirical support, but have not been investigated in cases of severe interpersonal trauma. To address this limitation, we conducted latent class growth analysis with longitudinal data collected from 119 female sexual assault survivors at 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-months postassault. Participants' mean age was 33 years; 63% were White. We hypothesized that given the severity of exposure associated with sexual assault, resilience would not be the modal course of adaptation. Four distinct PTSD growth trajectories, representing unique latent classes of participants, best fit the data: a high chronic trajectory, a moderate chronic trajectory, a moderate recovery trajectory, and a marked recovery trajectory. Contrary to previous studies and recent theoretical models, resilience and resistance trajectories were not observed, as high levels of distress were evident in nearly all participants at 1-month postassault. These results suggest that theoretical models of posttrauma response positing resilience as the modal outcome may not generalize to cases of sexual assault.

Deployment stressors and outcomes among Air Force chaplains.

Military chaplains are invaluable caregiver resources for service members. Little is known about how chaplains respond to the challenge of providing spiritual counsel in a warzone. In this exploratory study, 183 previously deployed Air Force chaplains completed an online survey assessing operational and counseling stress exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, compassion fatigue, and posttraumatic growth. Despite reporting exposure to stressful counseling experiences, Air Force chaplains did not endorse high compassion fatigue. Rather, chaplains experienced positive psychological growth following exposure to stressful counseling experiences. However, 7.7% of Air Force chaplains reported clinically significant PTSD symptoms, suggesting that they are not immune to deployment-related mental health problems. Simultaneous regression analyses revealed that counseling stress exposure predicted compassion fatigue (ß = .20) and posttraumatic growth (ß = .24), suggesting that caretaking in theatre is stressful enough to spur positive psychological growth in chaplains. Consistent with findings from previous studies, hierarchical regression analyses revealed that operational stress exposure predicted PTSD symptom severity (ß = .33) while controlling for demographic variables.

Heterogeneity in the course of posttraumatic stress disorder: trajectories of symptomatology.

Unconditional and conditional trajectories of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology were examined using a sample of U.S. soldiers deployed on a NATO-led peacekeeping mission to Kosovo. Data were collected at 4 time points, ranging from the weeks leading up to deployment to 9-months post deployment. Latent class growth analysis revealed 4 unique symptom trajectories: resilience, recovery, delayed, and unrealized anxiety. Variables identified as significant predictors of trajectory class included previous traumatic events, combat exposure, peacekeeping daily hassles, depression, alcohol use, aggressive behavior, stress reactivity, and military rank. Results from this study add to the literature detailing the variability in PTSD course, as well as to the literature pertaining to predictors of PTSD onset and course.

Unit cohesion and PTSD symptom severity in Air Force medical personnel.

Research suggests that military unit cohesion may protect against the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, equivocal findings have led researchers to hypothesize a potential curvilinear interaction between unit cohesion and warzone stress. This hypothesis states that the protective effects of cohesion increase as warzone stress exposure intensifies from low to moderate levels, but at high levels of warzone stress exposure, cohesion loses its protective effects and is potentially detrimental. To test this theory, we conducted a test for curvilinear moderation using a sample of 705 Air Force medical personnel deployed as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Results did not support the curvilinear interaction hypothesis, although evidence of cohesion's protective effects was found, suggesting that unit cohesion protects against PTSD regardless of level of stress exposure.

Psychometric evaluation of the Brief Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire among treatment-seeking veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.

Objective: The present study aimed to explore the psychometric properties of the Brief Experiential Avoidance Questionnaire (BEAQ) among veterans seeking treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Given that experiential avoidance (EA) is implicated in the development and maintenance of PTSD, it appears to be a possible clinical target for change across treatment. Method: The BEAQ was administered among two samples of military veterans seeking outpatient (n = 179) and residential (n = 257) treatment for PTSD at a Veterans Affairs specialty clinic. The BEAQ is a 15-item self-report measure intended to assess EA, and additional information regarding its psychometric properties is warranted. Results: Descriptive results of the BEAQ in veteran samples are presented. Confirmatory factor analyses of the BEAQ found poor fit in both samples, indicating the BEAQ is not a unidimensional construct, as has been proposed. Conclusions: Future research should consider whether the current structure of the BEAQ is appropriate for measuring EA in veteran samples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The probability of change versus dropout in veterans receiving Cognitive Processing Therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to elucidate the timing of symptom change and treatment dropout in a leading evidence-based psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder, Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT). Despite its efficacy across numerous populations, treatment nonresponse and premature dropout are common in CPT and other trauma-focused interventions, particularly among military veterans. Advancements are therefore needed to reduce dropout and increase retention. METHOD: Survival analysis was used to identify the temporal probability of symptom amelioration at each session of CPT (with written trauma account; CPT-A) and compare this with the cumulative, session-by-session probability of dropout. Data were obtained from 194 veterans seeking outpatient treatment at a Veterans Affairs specialty clinic. RESULTS: Overall, 49-61% of veterans reported meaningful symptom reduction in the course of CPT-A and 40% dropped out prematurely. The cumulative probability of dropout exceeded the probability of symptom change beginning after session six of therapy. Secondary analyses indicated that this six session rule generalized well across subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: When symptom amelioration is not observed by the midway point in CPT-A, a change in therapeutic approach appears warranted for preempting dropout among veterans and boosting treatment retention.

Do scores on the Beck Depression Inventory-II predict outcome in cognitive processing therapy?

Current treatment guidelines for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) recognize that severe depression may limit the effectiveness of trauma-focused interventions, making it necessary to address depression symptomatology first. However, there is a paucity of research providing specific treatment recommendations using a common depression measure like the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). Accordingly, we examined the utility of using BDI-II cutoff scores for predicting response to cognitive processing therapy (CPT). Our sample was 757 military veterans receiving outpatient therapy at a Department of Veterans Affairs specialty clinic. At baseline, the majority of participants (58.9%) reported BDI-II scores suggestive of severe depression, and 459 (60.7%) met DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD). Despite this high level of depression severity, most participants who completed therapy experienced a clinically significant reduction in symptoms (75.1%). No differences were observed across BDI-II groups on rates of clinically significant change in PTSD symptoms or on rates of treatment completion. Taken together, results suggest that CPT is an effective treatment, even in cases of severe co-occurring depression. Limitations and implications for treatment guidelines are discussed.

Changes in posttraumatic cognitions predict changes in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms during cognitive processing therapy.

OBJECTIVE: Although cognitive processing therapy (CPT) has strong empirical support as a treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), studies have not directly examined the proposed change mechanisms that underlie CPT-that change in trauma-related cognitions produces change in PTSD and depression symptoms. To improve the understanding of underlying mechanisms of psychotherapeutic change, this study investigated longitudinal association between trauma-related cognitions, PTSD, and depression among veterans receiving CPT during a 7-week residential PTSD treatment program. METHOD: All 195 veterans met DSM-IV-TR diagnosis for PTSD. The sample was 53% male with a mean age of 48 years. Self-reported race was 50% White and 45% African American. The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory was used to assess trauma-related cognitions. The PTSD Checklist and Beck Depression Inventory-II were used to assess PTSD and depression, respectively. Cross-lagged panel models were used to test the longitudinal associations between trauma-related cognitions, PTSD, and depression. Measures were administered at three time points: pre-, mid-, and posttreatment. RESULTS: Change in posttraumatic cognitions (self-blame; negative beliefs about the self) preceded change in PTSD. In addition, (a) change in negative beliefs about the self preceded change in depression, (b) change in depression preceded change in self-blame cognitions, and (c) change in depression preceded change in PTSD. CONCLUSION: Findings support the hypothesized underlying mechanisms of CPT in showing that change in trauma-related cognitions precedes change in PTSD symptoms. Results suggest that reduction of depression may be important in influencing reduction of PTSD among veterans in residential PTSD treatment.

Emotional Functioning in Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Comparison to Borderline Personality Disorder and Healthy Controls.

Few studies have investigated emotional functioning in obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). To explore the nature and extent of emotion difficulties in OCPD, the authors examined four domains of self-reported emotional functioning--negative affectivity, anger, emotion regulation, and emotion expressivity--in women with OCPD and compared them to a borderline personality disorder (BPD) group and a healthy control group. Data were collected as part of a larger psychophysiological experimental study on emotion regulation and personality. Compared to healthy controls, participants with OCPD reported significantly higher levels of negative affectivity, trait anger, emotional intensity, and emotion regulation difficulties. Emotion regulation difficulties included lack of emotional clarity, nonacceptance of emotional responses, and limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies. Participants with OCPD scored similarly to participants with BPD on only one variable, namely, problems engaging in goal-directed behavior when upset. Results suggest that OCPD may be characterized by notable difficulties in several emotional domains.

Diagnostic Utility of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Checklist for Identifying Full and Partial PTSD in Active-Duty Military.

The aim of this study was to determine optimally efficient cutoff scores on the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL) for identifying full posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and partial PTSD (P-PTSD) in active-duty Marines and Sailors. Participants were 1,016 Marines and Sailors who were administered the PCL and Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) 3 months after returning from Operations Iraqi and Enduring Freedom. PCL cutoffs were tested against three CAPS-based classifications: full PTSD, stringent P-PTSD, and lenient P-PTSD. A PCL score of 39 was found to be optimally efficient for identifying full PTSD. Scores of 38 and 33 were found to be optimally efficient for identifying stringent and lenient P-PTSD, respectively. Findings suggest that the PCL cutoff that is optimally efficient for detecting PTSD in active-duty Marines and Sailors is substantially lower than the score of 50 commonly used by researchers. In addition, findings provide scores useful for identifying P-PTSD in returning service members.

Co-occurring posttraumatic stress and depression symptoms after sexual assault: a latent profile analysis.

BACKGROUND: Symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression frequently co-occur, but their distinctiveness following trauma remains unclear. We examined patterns of PTSD and depression symptoms after sexual assault to evaluate the extent to which assault survivors primarily reported symptoms of both disorders or whether there were meaningfully distinct subgroups with discordant PTSD and depression symptoms. METHODS: Latent profile analysis was used to examine self-reported PTSD and depression symptoms among 119 female sexual assault survivors at 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-months post-assault. RESULTS: At all time points, a 4-class solution fit the data best, revealing four subgroups with low, low-moderate, high-moderate, and severe levels of both PTSD and depression symptoms. Within each subgroup, PTSD symptom severity co-occurred with comparable depression symptom severity. At no time point were there reliable subgroups with discordant PTSD and depression symptom severities. Emotional numbing, hyperarousal, and overall PTSD symptom severity reliably distinguished each class from the others. Class membership at 1-month post-assault predicted subsequent class membership and functional impairment. LIMITATIONS: Additional research is needed to evaluate predictors of class membership, temporal stability of classes, and generalizability to other trauma populations. CONCLUSIONS: Co-occurring and comparably severe PTSD and depression symptoms are pervasive among female sexual assault survivors. The absence of a distinct subset of individuals with only PTSD or depression symptoms suggests that PTSD and depression may be manifestations of a general posttraumatic stress response rather than distinct disorders after trauma. Integrated treatments targeting both PTSD and depression symptoms may therefore prove more efficient and effective.

The differential impact of terrorism on two Israeli communities.

The authors evaluated 2 cohorts of individuals from different Israeli communities (Sderot and Otef Aza) that are repeatedly subjected to potentially lethal missile attacks. Although both communities border the Gaza Strip and face similar levels of threat, the authors hypothesized that the Sderot cohort would endorse higher rates of stress-related symptoms because it has fewer mitigating economic and psychosocial resources. The authors further hypothesized that there would be a significant relationship between exposure to terror and psychopathology regardless of community context. To test these predictions, the authors compared the levels of exposure to terror, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression in representative samples of adults from the 2 communities (n = 298 and n = 152, respectively). Residents of Sderot had a much higher rate of probable PTSD (35.2% vs. 6.6%), and community context was the most important predictor of PTSD and depression. The study also revealed a significant relationship between exposure and psychopathology, but for Sderot residents only. The conclusion is that researchers, mental health workers, and policy makers should pay attention to the influence of community characteristics, such as the availability of resources, the general sense of support, and the level of solidarity, on the mental health response to exposure to terror.

The distinctiveness of prolonged grief and posttraumatic stress disorder in adults bereaved by the attacks of September 11th.

BACKGROUND: Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) is a new diagnosis proposed for inclusion in the DSM-V. Although some studies have shown the distinctiveness of PGD and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), this relationship has yet to be tested within a context of sudden, violent loss. METHOD: We conducted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) using self-report data collected from a sample of 587 bereaved adults who lost friends and relatives in the attacks of September 11th. Participants completed a 9-item PGD screening measure and the 17-item PTSD Checklist. RESULTS: A five factor solution representing two distinct constructs emerged from our analysis. Although two PGD items loaded onto factors containing PTSD symptoms, these items assessed non-specific symptomatology (i.e., generalized negative affect). Thus, overall, our results support the distinctiveness of PGD and PTSD within a context of sudden, violent loss. LIMITATIONS: Data were collected using self-report. The representativeness of our sample is uncertain. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide a stringent test of construct validity and suggest that PGD warrants inclusion in the diagnostic nosology. Adding PGD to the DSM-V will help clinicians better assess and treat psychopathology resulting from grief.

Trajectories of response to treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder.

Research on the predictors of response to cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD has often produced inconsistent or ambiguous results. We argue this is in part due to the use of statistical techniques that explore relationships among the entire sample of participants rather than homogeneous subgroups. Using 2 large randomized controlled trials of Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), CPT components, and Prolonged Exposure, we employed growth mixture modeling to identify distinct trajectories of treatment response and to determine the predictors of those trajectories. We determined that the participants' trajectories could be best represented by 2 latent classes, which we subsequently labeled responders (87% of the sample) and nonresponders (13% of the sample). Notably, there was not a separate class for partial responders. Assignment to the nonresponder class was associated with receiving the written accounts (WA) component of CPT, a pretreatment diagnosis of major depression (MDD), and more pretreatment hyperarousal symptoms. Thus, it appears that some individuals do not benefit from merely writing about their trauma and processing it with the therapist; they may also need to engage in cognitive restructuring to successfully ameliorate their symptoms. Additionally, those who meet criteria for MDD or have high levels of hyperarousal at the onset of treatment might require additional treatment or support.