Does social need fulfillment moderate the association between socioeconomic status and health risk behaviours during pregnancy?

Socioeconomic differences in health risk behaviours during pregnancy may be influenced by social relations. In this study, we aimed to investigate if social need fulfillment moderates the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and health risk behaviours (smoking and/or alcohol consumption) during pregnancy. We used baseline data from the Lifelines Cohort Study merged with data from the Lifelines Reproductive Origin of Adult Health and Disease (ROAHD) cohort. Education level was used to determine SES, categorized into low, middle, and high, with middle SES as the reference category. Social need fulfillment was taken as indicator for social relations and was measured with the validated Social Production Function Instrument for the Level of Well-being scale. The dependent variable was smoking and/or alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association of SES and social need fulfillment with health risk behaviours and to test for effect modification. We included 1107 pregnant women. The results showed that women with a high SES had statistically significantly lower odds of health risk behaviours during pregnancy. The interaction effect between SES and social need fulfillment on health risk behaviours was not statistically significant, indicating that no moderation effect is present. The results indicate that social need fulfillment does not modify the effect of SES on health risk behaviours during pregnancy. However, in literature, social relations are identified as an important influence on health risk behaviours. More research is needed to identify which measure of social relations is the most relevant regarding the association with health risk behaviours.

Stillbirth and neonatal mortality in a subsequent pregnancy following stillbirth: a population-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: A history of stillbirth is a risk factor for recurrent fetal death in a subsequent pregnancy. Reported risks of recurrent fetal death are often not stratified by gestational age. In subsequent pregnancies increased rates of medical interventions are reported without evidence of perinatal benefit. The aim of this study was to estimate gestational-age specific risks of recurrent stillbirth and to evaluate the effect of obstetrical management on perinatal outcome after previous stillbirth. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study in the Netherlands was designed that included 252.827 women with two consecutive singleton pregnancies (1st and 2nd delivery) between 1999 and 2007. Data was obtained from the national Perinatal Registry and analyzed for pregnancy outcomes. Fetal deaths associated with a congenital anomaly were excluded. The primary outcome was the occurrence of stillbirth in the second pregnancy stratified by gestational age. Secondary outcome was the influence of obstetrical management on perinatal outcome in a subsequent pregnancy. RESULTS: Of 252.827 first pregnancies, 2.058 pregnancies ended in a stillbirth (8.1 per 1000). After adjusting for confounding factors, women with a prior stillbirth have a two-fold higher risk of recurrence (aOR 1.96, 95% CI 1.07-3.60) compared to women with a live birth in their first pregnancy. The highest risk of recurrence occurred in the group of women with a stillbirth in early gestation between 22 and 28 weeks of gestation (a OR 2.25, 95% CI 0.62-8.15), while after 32 weeks the risk decreased. The risk of neonatal death after 34 weeks of gestation is higher in women with a history of stillbirth (aOR 6.48, 95% CI 2.61-16.1) and the risk of neonatal death increases with expectant obstetric management (aOR 10.0, 95% CI 2.43-41.1). CONCLUSIONS: A history of stillbirth remains an important risk for recurrent stillbirth especially in early gestation (22-28 weeks). Women with a previous stillbirth should be counselled for elective induction in the subsequent pregnancy at 37-38 weeks of gestation to decrease the risk of perinatal death.

Stillbirths preceded by reduced fetal movements are more frequently associated with placental insufficiency: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Maternal report of reduced fetal movements (RFM) is a means of identifying fetal compromise in pregnancy. In live births RFM is associated with altered placental structure and function. Here, we explored associations between RFM, pregnancy characteristics, and the presence of placental abnormalities and fetal growth restriction (FGR) in cases of stillbirth. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was carried out in a single UK tertiary maternity unit. Cases were divided into three groups: 109 women reporting RFM, 33 women with absent fetal movements (AFM) and 159 who did not report RFM before the diagnosis of stillbirth. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was used to determine associations between RFM/AFM, pregnancy characteristics, placental insufficiency and the classification of the stillbirth. RESULTS: AFM or RFM were reported prior to diagnosis of stillbirth in 142 (47.2%) of cases. Pregnancies with RFM prior to diagnosis of stillbirth were independently associated with placental insufficiency (Odds Ratio (OR) 2.79, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.84, 5.04) and were less frequently associated with maternal proteinuria (OR 0.16, 95% CI 0.07, 0.62) and previous pregnancy loss <24 weeks (OR 0.20, 95% CI 0.07, 0.70). When combined, AFM and RFM were less frequently reported in twin pregnancies ending in stillbirth and in intrapartum stillbirths. CONCLUSIONS: The association between RFM and placental insufficiency was confirmed in cases of stillbirth. This provides further evidence that RFM is a symptom of placental insufficiency. Therefore, investigation after RFM should aim to identify placental dysfunction.

Parents' experiences of care offered after stillbirth: An international online survey of high and middle-income countries.

BACKGROUND: Stillbirth, the death of a baby before birth, is associated with significant psychological and social consequences that can be mitigated by respectful and supportive bereavement care. The absence of high-level evidence to support the broad scope of perinatal bereavement practices means that offering a range of options identified as valued by parents has become an important indicator of care quality. This study aimed to describe bereavement care practices offered to parents across different high-income and middle-income countries. METHODS: An online survey of parents of stillborn babies was conducted between December 2014 and February 2015. Frequencies of nine practices were compared between high-income and middle-income countries. Differences in proportions of reported practices and their associated odds ratios were calculated to compare high-income and middle-income countries. RESULTS: Over three thousand parents (3041) with a self-reported stillbirth in the preceding five years from 40 countries responded. Fifteen countries had atleast 40 responses. Significant differences in the prevalence of offering nine bereavement care practices were reported by women in high-income countries (HICs) compared with women in middle-income countries (MICs). All nine practices were reported to occur significantly more frequently by women in HICs, including opportunity to see and hold their baby (OR = 4.8, 95% CI 4.0-5.9). The widespread occurrence of all nine practices was reported only for The Netherlands. CONCLUSIONS: Bereavement care after stillbirth varies between countries. Future research should look at why these differences occur, their impact on parents, and whether differences should be addressed, particularly how to support effective communication, decision-making, and follow-up care.

Placental creatine metabolism in cases of placental insufficiency and reduced fetal growth.

Creatine is a metabolite involved in cellular energy homeostasis. In this study, we examined placental creatine content, and expression of the enzymes required for creatine synthesis, transport and the creatine kinase reaction, in pregnancies complicated by low birthweight. We studied first trimester chorionic villus biopsies (CVBs) of small for gestational age (SGA) and appropriately grown infants (AGA), along with third trimester placental samples from fetal growth restricted (FGR) and healthy gestation-matched controls. Placental creatine and creatine precursor (guanidinoacetate-GAA) levels were measured. Maternal and cord serum from control and FGR pregnancies were also analyzed for creatine concentration. mRNA expression of the creatine transporter (SLC6A8); synthesizing enzymes arginine:glycine aminotransferase (GATM) and guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (GAMT); mitochondrial (mtCK) and cytosolic (BBCK) creatine kinases; and amino acid transporters (SLC7A1 & SLC7A2) was assessed in both CVBs and placental samples. Protein levels of AGAT (arginine:glycine aminotransferase), GAMT, mtCK and BBCK were also measured in placental samples. Key findings; total creatine content of the third trimester FGR placentae was 43% higher than controls. The increased creatine content of placental tissue was not reflected in maternal or fetal serum from FGR pregnancies. Tissue concentrations of GAA were lower in the third trimester FGR placentae compared to controls, with lower GATM and GAMT mRNA expression also observed. No differences in the mRNA expression of GATM, GAMT or SLC6A8 were observed between CVBs from SGA and AGA pregnancies. These results suggest placental creatine metabolism in FGR pregnancies is altered in late gestation. The relevance of these changes on placental bioenergetics should be the focus of future investigations.

Stillbirth and neonatal mortality in pregnancies complicated by major congenital anomalies: Findings from a large European cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To provide prognostic information to help parents to reach an informed decision about termination or continuation of the pregnancy and to shape peripartum policy based on a large European cohort. METHOD: Thirteen registries from the European Surveillance of Congenital Anomalies (EUROCAT) network contributed data from January 1, 1998, to December 31, 2011. Terminations for fetal anomalies were excluded. Chromosomal anomalies, syndromes and isolated anomaly groups were distinguished according to EUROCAT guidelines. Perinatal mortality, stillbirths, and early and late neonatal mortality rates (NMRs) were analyzed by anomaly group and gestational age. RESULTS: Among 73 337 cases, perinatal mortality associated with congenital anomaly was 1.27 per 1000 births (95% confidence interval, 1.23-1.31). Average stillbirth rate was 2.68% (range 0%-51.2%). Early and late NMR were 2.75% (range 0%-46.7%) and 0.97% (range 0%-17.9%), respectively. Chromosomal anomalies and syndromes, and most isolated anomalies, had significant differences regarding timing of fetal demise compared to the general population. Chromosomal and central nervous system anomalies had higher term stillbirth rates. CONCLUSIONS: We found relevant differences between anomalies regarding rates of stillbirth, NMR, and timing by gestational age. Our data can help parents to decide about their unborn child with a congenital anomaly and help inform maternal-fetal medicine specialists regarding peripartum management.

Client-Related Factors Associated with a "Less than Good" Experience of Midwifery Care during Childbirth in the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: A "less than good" experience during childbirth can affect a mother's early interaction with her child and may significantly influence a woman's emotional well-being. In this study, we focus on clients who experienced midwifery care provided during childbirth as "less than good" care. The aim of this study was to understand the relationship between client-related factors and the experience of midwifery care during childbirth to improve this care. METHODS: This study was part of the "DELIVER study" where mothers report on the care they received. We used generalized estimation equations to control for correlations within midwife practices. Forward multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to model the client-related factors associated with the experienced midwifery care during childbirth. RESULTS: We included the responses of 2,377 women. In the multivariable logistic regression model, odds of reporting "less than good care" were significantly higher for women who experienced an unplanned cesarean birth (OR 2.21 [CI 1.19-4.09]), an instrumental birth (OR 1.55 [CI 1.08-2.23]), and less control during the dilation phase (OR 0.98 [CI 0.97-0.99]) and pushing phase (OR 0.98 [CI 0.97-0.99]). DISCUSSION: Birth-related factors were more likely than maternal characteristics to be associated with the experience of midwifery care during childbirth. We conclude that there is room for midwives to improve their care for women during childbirth particularly in improving the patient centeredness of the care provider, using strategies to enhance sense of control, and focusing on the particular needs of those who experience instrumental vaginal or unplanned cesarean births.

DNA Methylation and Expression Patterns of Selected Genes in First-Trimester Placental Tissue from Pregnancies with Small-for-Gestational-Age Infants at Birth.

Variations in DNA methylation levels in the placenta are thought to influence gene expression and are associated with complications of pregnancy, like fetal growth restriction (FGR). The most important cause for FGR is placental dysfunction. Here, we examined whether changes in DNA methylation, followed by gene expression changes, are mechanistically involved in the etiology of FGR. In this retrospective case-control study, we examined the association between small-for-gestational-age (SGA) children and both DNA methylation and gene expression levels of the genes WNT2, IGF2/H19, SERPINA3, HERVWE1, and PPARG in first-trimester placental tissue. We also examined the repetitive element LINE-1. These candidate genes have been reported in the literature to be associated with SGA. We used first-trimester placental tissue from chorionic villus biopsies. A total of 35 SGA children (with a birth weight below the 10th percentile) were matched to 70 controls based on their gestational age. DNA methylation levels were analyzed by pyrosequencing and mRNA levels were analyzed by real-time PCR. None of the average DNA methylation levels, measured for each gene, showed a significant difference between SGA placental tissue compared to control tissue. However, hypermethylation of WNT2 was detected on two CpG positions in SGA. This was not associated with changes in gene expression. Apart from two CpG positions of the WNT2 gene, in early placenta samples, no evident changes in DNA methylation or expression were found. This indicates that the already reported changes in term placenta are not present in the early placenta, and therefore must arise after the first trimester.

Thyroid function testing in women who had a stillbirth.

CONTEXT: Thyroid dysfunction is thought to be associated with stillbirth. Therefore, thyroid function is often recommended in the diagnostic investigations for stillbirth. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to evaluate the added value of thyroid function testing in the diagnostic investigations for stillbirth. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: A nationwide multicentre prospective cohort study in 1025 women who suffered stillbirth >20 weeks of gestation performed between 2002 and 2008. In each woman, an extensive diagnostic work-up was performed, including placental examination and autopsy. TSH and FT4 values below the 2·5th percentile or above the 97·5th percentile according local laboratory reference values were regarded as abnormal. Women with a history of thyroid disease were evaluated separately. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Thyroid function abnormalities in women with stillbirth. RESULTS: Of 1025 included women, 21 had a history of thyroid disease (2%). In the 875 with TSH and FT4 results and no history of thyroid disease, 10% had hypothyroxinemia, 4·6% subclinical hypothyroidism, 1·6% overt hypothyroidism and 1·5% subclinical hyperthyroidism. Women with a subclinical hyperthyroidism more often had a foetal death caused by foetal hydrops: 23% vs 2·9% (adjusted OR 10·3, 95% CI 2·5-42). CONCLUSIONS: Women with a stillbirth had a slightly higher prevalence of overt hypothyroidism, subclinical hypothyroidism and hypothyroxinaemia compared to previous studies on thyroid dysfunction in pregnant women. Given the absence of a strong associations with the cause of stillbirth, and no demonstrated beneficial effects of treating thyroid dysfunction in these women, routine screening after stillbirth is not justified.

In preterm infants, ascending intrauterine infection is associated with lower cerebral tissue oxygen saturation and higher oxygen extraction.

BACKGROUND: Placental lesions are associated with neurological morbidity but the mechanism leading to morbidity is unclear. To provide insight into such a possible mechanism, we determined whether placental lesions were associated with regional cerebral tissue oxygen saturation (rcSO2) and fractional tissue oxygen extraction (FTOE) in preterm infants during their first 5 d after birth. We hypothesized that as a result of cerebral hypoperfusion, rcSO2 would be lower and FTOE would be higher. METHOD: In a prospective, observational study of 42 preterm infants (gestational age <32 wk), the infants' placentas were examined for histopathology. We measured rcSO2 and transcutaneous arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) on days 1-5. FTOE was calculated as FTOE = (transcutaneous SpO2 - rcSO2)/transcutaneous SpO2. RESULTS: Only three placentas showed no pathology. Ascending intrauterine infection (AIUI) (n = 16) was associated with lower rcSO2 and higher FTOE values on days 2, 3, and 4 (P ≤ 0.05). Other placental lesions were not associated with rcSO2 and FTOE. CONCLUSION: AIUI is associated with lower rcSO2, and higher FTOE shortly after birth. The effect it has on cerebral oxygenation might be the mechanism leading to neurodevelopmental problems.

Classification of substandard factors in perinatal care: development and multidisciplinary inter-rater agreement of the Groningen-system.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal audit is an established method for improving the quality of perinatal care. In audit meetings substandard factors (SSF) are identified in cases of perinatal mortality and morbidity. To our knowledge there is no classification system specifically designed for the classification of substandard factors. Such a classification may help to standardise allocation of substandard factors to categories. This will help to prioritise, guide and implement actions in quality improvement programs. METHODS: A classification system of 284 substandard factors (SSF) identified in perinatal audit meetings between 2007 and 2011 was drawn up using the WHO Conceptual Framework for the International Classification for Patient Safety as a starting point. Discussions were held on inter-rater disagreements, inclusion of items, format and organisation and definitions of the main- and subcategories. A guideline was developed. An independent multidisciplinary group tested the classification. Independent of inter-rater agreement the allocations to categories were counted. For the counts in the subcategories one and two, we used the allocations in the main category as reference. The chance corrected agreement between classifiers was tested with Cohen's kappa statistic. RESULTS: The classification consists of 9 main categories with one or two subcategories. The main categories are (1) Equipment and Materials, (2) Medication, (3) Additional tests/ investigations, (4) Transportation , (5) Documentation, (6) Communication, (7) Medical practice, (8) Other and (9) non classifiable. Of 3663 allocations by 13 classifiers 1452 SSF's were allocated (40%) to 'medical practice' and 1247 (34%) to 'documentation'. 118 (3%) times SSF's were not classifiable, mainly due to unclear phrasing of the SSF. The chance corrected agreement of 284 substandard factors in the main category was 0.68 (95% CI 0.66-0.70) and 0.57 (95% CI 0.54-0.59) for the CDG and the IGD respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Classifying substandard factors has given insight into problem area's in perinatal care and can give direction to medical, political and financial quality improvement measures. The Groningen-system has well defined categories and subcategories and the guidelines and examples are clear. The multidisciplinary inter-rater agreement is moderate to good. Improvement of the phrasing of the substandard factors is expected to improve inter-rater agreement.

Counting every stillbirth and neonatal death through mortality audit to improve quality of care for every pregnant woman and her baby.

BACKGROUND: While there is widespread acknowledgment of the need for improved quality and quantity of information on births and deaths, there has been less movement towards systematically capturing and reviewing the causes and avoidable factors linked to deaths, in order to affect change. This is particularly true for stillbirths and neonatal deaths which can fall between different health care providers and departments. Maternal and perinatal mortality audit applies to two of the five objectives in the Every Newborn Action Plan but data on successful approaches to overcome bottlenecks to scaling up audit are lacking. METHODS: We reviewed the current evidence for facility-based perinatal mortality audit with a focus on low- and middle-income countries and assessed the status of mortality audit policy and implementation. Based on challenges identified in the literature, key challenges to completing the audit cycle and affecting change were identified across the WHO health system building blocks, along with solutions, in order to inform the process of scaling up this strategy with attention to quality. RESULTS: Maternal death surveillance and review is moving rapidly with many countries enacting and implementing policies and with accountability beyond the single facility conducting the audits. While 51 priority countries report having a policy on maternal death notification in 2014, only 17 countries have a policy for reporting and reviewing stillbirths and neonatal deaths. The existing evidence demonstrates the potential for audit to improve birth outcomes, only if the audit cycle is completed. The primary challenges within the health system building blocks are in the area of leadership and health information. Examples of successful implementation exist from high income countries and select low- and middle-income countries provide valuable learning, especially on the need for leadership for effective audit systems and on the development and the use of clear guidelines and protocols in order to ensure that the audit cycle is completed. CONCLUSIONS: Health workers have the power to change health care routines in daily practice, but this must be accompanied by concrete inputs at every level of the health system. The system requires data systems including consistent cause of death classification and use of best practice guidelines to monitor performance, as well as leaders to champion the process, especially to ensure a no-blame environment, and to access change agents at other levels to address larger, systemic challenges.

Women's Suggestions for Improving Midwifery Care in The Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: The experience of the care a woman receives during pregnancy and childbirth has an immediate and long-lasting effect on her well being. The involvement of patients and clients in health care has increased over the last decades. The Dutch maternity care system offers an excellent opportunity to explore and involve women's suggestions for the improvement of midwifery care in the current maternity care model. METHODS: This qualitative study is part of the "DELIVER" study. Clients were recruited from 20 midwifery practices. Purposive sampling was used to select the practices. The clients received up to three questionnaires, in which they could respond to the question; "Do you have any suggestions on how your midwife could improve his/her provision of care?" The answers were analyzed with a qualitative thematic content analysis, using the software program MAXQDA. RESULTS: Altogether, 3,499 answers were provided. One overarching concept emerged: clients' desire for individualized care. Within this concept, suggestions could be clustered around 1) provider characteristics: interpersonal skills, communication, and competence, and 2) service characteristics: content and quantity of care, guidance and support, continuity of care provider, continuity of care, information, and coordination of care. CONCLUSIONS: Informed by the suggestions of women, care to women and their families could be improved by the following: 1) more continuity of the care provider during the prenatal, natal, and postnatal periods, 2) more information and information specifically tailored for the person, 3) client-centered communication, and 4) a personal approach with 5) enough time spent per client.

The effectiveness of multifetal pregnancy reduction in trichorionic triplet gestation.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to assess in trichorionic triplet pregnancies the effectiveness of elective reduction to twins. STUDY DESIGN: This was a nationwide retrospective cohort study. We compared the time to delivery and perinatal mortality in trichorionic triplet pregnancies electively reduced to twins with ongoing trichorionic triplets and primary dichorionic twins. RESULTS: We identified 86 women with reduced trichorionic triplet pregnancies, 44 with ongoing trichorionic triplets, and 824 with primary twins. Reduced triplets had a median gestational age at delivery of 36.1 weeks (interquartile range [IQR], 33.3-37.5 weeks) vs 33.3 (IQR, 28.1-35.2) weeks for ongoing triplets and 37.1 (IQR, 35.3-38.1) weeks for primary twins (P < .001). The total number of surviving children in the reduced group was 155 (90%) vs 114 (86%) in the ongoing triplet group. After reduction, 75 of women (87%) had all their fetuses surviving, compared with 36 (82%) (relative risk [RR], 1.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.72-2.3) for ongoing triplets and 770 (93%) (RR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.82-1) for primary twins. There were 6 women without any surviving children (7%) after reduction vs 5 (11.4%) (RR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.47-1.4) among women with ongoing triplets and 32 (3.9%) (RR, 1.7; 95% CI, 0.8-3.7) in women with primary twins. CONCLUSION: In women with a triplet pregnancy, fetal reduction increases gestational age at birth with 3 weeks as compared with ongoing triplets. However, there the impact on neonatal survival is limited.

Sharing experiences to improve bereavement support and clinical care after stillbirth: report of the 7th annual meeting of the International Stillbirth Alliance.

Stillbirth remains a global health challenge which is greatly affected by social and economic inequality, particularly the availability and quality of maternity care. The International Stillbirth Alliance (ISA) exists to raise awareness of stillbirth and to promote global collaboration in the prevention of stillbirth and provision of appropriate care for parents whose baby is stillborn. The focus of this ISA conference was to share experiences to improve bereavement support and clinical care. These issues, relevant throughout the globe, are not discrete but closely interrelated, with both similarities and differences depending on the specific country and cultural context. Counting stillbirths and understanding the causes of stillbirth are essential not only for providing optimal care and support to parents whose babies die, but also for reducing the future burden of stillbirth. This summary highlights novel work from obstetricians, midwives, psychologists, parents and peer support organizations that was presented at the ISA meeting. It covers topics including the bereavement process, peer support for parents, support and training for staff, evidence for clinical care, and the need for accurate data on stillbirths and perinatal audits. Representatives from the maternity services of the region presented their outcome data and shared their experiences of clinical and bereavement care. Data and developments in practice within stillbirth and bereavement care must be widely disseminated and acted upon by those responsible for maternity care provision, both to prevent stillbirths and to provide high-quality care when they do occur.

Differences in Immune phenotype in decidual tissue from multigravid women compared to primigravid women.

PROBLEM: Women with a previous uncomplicated pregnancy have lower risks of immune-associated pregnancy disorders in a subsequent pregnancy. This could indicate a different maternal immune response in multigravid women compared to primigravid women. In a previous study, we showed persistent higher memory T cell proportions with higher CD69 expression after uncomplicated pregnancies. To our knowledge no studies have reported on immune cells in general, and immune memory cells and macrophages specifically in multigravid and primigravid women. METHOD OF STUDY: T cells and macrophages were isolated from term decidua parietalis and decidua basalis tissue from healthy primigravid women (n = 12) and multigravid women (n = 12). Using flow cytometry, different T cell populations including memory T cells and macrophages were analyzed. To analyze whether a different immune phenotype is already present in early pregnancy, decidual tissue from uncomplicated ongoing pregnancies between 9 and 12 weeks of gestation from multigravida and primigravid women was investigated using qRT-PCR. RESULTS: Nearly all T cell subsets analyzed in the decidua parietalis had significantly higher CD69+ proportions in multigravid women compared to primigravid women. A higher proportion of decidual (CD50- ) M2-like macrophages was found in the decidua parietalis in multigravid women compared to primigravid women. In first trimester decidual tissue higher FOXP3 mRNA expression was found in multigravid women compared to primigravid women. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that decidual tissue from multigravid women has a more activated and immunoregulatory phenotype compared to decidual tissue from primigravid women in early pregnancy and at term which could suggest a more balanced immune adaptation towards pregnancy after earlier uncomplicated pregnancies.

Adverse Maternal and Infant Outcomes of Women Who Differ in Smoking Status: E-Cigarette and Tobacco Cigarette Users.

The electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) became commercially available around 2004, yet the characteristics of pregnant women who use these devices and their effects on maternal and infant health remain largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate maternal characteristics and pregnancy outcomes according to maternal smoking status. We conducted a cross-sectional study of Dutch women with reported pregnancies between February 2019 and May 2022, using an online questionnaire to collect data on smoking status and demographic, lifestyle, pregnancy, and infant characteristics. Smoking status is compared among non-smokers, tobacco cigarette users, e-cigarette users, and dual users (tobacco and e-cigarette). We report descriptive statistics and calculate differences in smoking status between women with the chi-square or Fisher (Freeman-Halton) test. Of the 1937 included women, 88.1% were non-smokers, 10.8% were tobacco cigarette users, 0.5% were e-cigarette users, and 0.6% were dual users. Compared with tobacco users, e-cigarette users more often reported higher education, having a partner, primiparity, and miscarriages. Notably, women who used e-cigarettes more often had small infants for gestational age. Despite including few women in the e-cigarette subgroup, these exploratory results indicate the need for more research to examine the impact of e-cigarettes on pregnancy outcomes.

Evaluation of 1025 fetal deaths: proposed diagnostic workup.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to evaluate the contribution of different diagnostic tests for determining cause of fetal death. Our goal was to propose a workup guideline. STUDY DESIGN: In a multicenter prospective cohort study from 2002 through 2008, for 1025 couples with fetal death ≥20 weeks' gestation, an extensive nonselective diagnostic workup was performed. A panel classified cause and determined contribution of diagnostics for allocating cause. RESULTS: A Kleihauer-Betke, autopsy, placental examination, and cytogenetic analysis were abnormal in 11.9% (95% confidence interval [CI], 9.8-14.2), 51.5% (95% CI, 47.4-55.2), 89.2% (95% CI, 87.2-91.1), and 11.9% (95% CI, 8.7-15.7), respectively. The most valuable tests for determination of cause were placental examination (95.7%; 95% CI, 94.2-96.8), autopsy (72.6%; 95% CI, 69.2-75.9), and cytogenetic analysis (29.0%; 95% CI, 24.4-34.0). CONCLUSION: Autopsy, placental examination, cytogenetic analysis, and testing for fetal maternal hemorrhage are basic tests for workup after fetal death. Based on the results of these tests or on specific clinical characteristics, further sequential testing is indicated.

The origin of fetal sterols in second-trimester amniotic fluid: endogenous synthesis or maternal-fetal transport?

OBJECTIVE: Cholesterol is crucial for fetal development. To gain more insight into the origin of the fetal cholesterol pool in early human pregnancy, we determined cholesterol and its precursors in the amniotic fluid of uncomplicated, singleton human pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN: Total sterols were characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in the second-trimester amniotic fluid of 126 healthy fetuses from week 15 until week 22. RESULTS: The markers of cholesterol biosynthesis, lanosterol, dihydrolanosterol, and lathosterol, were present in low levels until the 19th week of gestation, after which their levels increased strongly. ß-sitosterol, a marker for maternal-fetal cholesterol transport, was detectable in the amniotic fluid. The total cholesterol levels increased slightly between weeks 15 and 22. CONCLUSION: Our results support the hypothesis that during early life the fetus depends on maternal cholesterol supply because endogenous synthesis is relatively low. Therefore, maternal cholesterol can play a crucial role in fetal development.

Smoking during pregnancy influences the maternal immune response in mice and humans.

OBJECTIVE: During pregnancy the maternal immune system has to adapt its response to accommodate the fetus. The objective of this study was to analyze the effects of smoking on the maternal immune system. STUDY DESIGN: First-trimester decidual tissue and peripheral blood of smoking and nonsmoking women were analyzed by real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and flow cytometry. A mouse model was used to further analyze the effects of smoking. Murine tissue was analyzed by flow cytometry, real-time RT-PCR, and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: Smoking caused lower percentages of viable pups in mice and lower birthweights in humans. Smoking mothers, both mice and human, had more natural killer cells and inflammatory macrophages locally, whereas systemically they had lower percentages of regulatory T cells than nonsmoking controls. CONCLUSION: Maternal smoke exposure during pregnancy influences local and systemic immune responses in both women and mice. Such changes may be involved in adverse pregnancy outcomes in smoking individuals.