Why can't we improve turnover time? A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Despite substantial efforts to reduce operating room (OR) turnover time (TOT), delays remain a frustration to physicians, staff, and hospital leadership. These efforts have employed many systems and human factor-based approaches with variable results. A deeper dive into methodologies and their applicability could lead to successful and sustained change. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review to evaluate relevant research focused on improving OR TOT and clearly defining measures of successful intervention. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A systematic review of OR TOT interventions implemented between 1980 through October 2022 was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology. Research databases included: 1) PubMed; 2) Web of Science; and 3) OVID Medline. RESULTS: A total of 38 articles were appropriate for analysis. Most employed a pre/post intervention approach (29, 76.3%), the remaining utilized a control/intervention approach. Nine intervention methods were identified: the majority included a process redesign bundle (24, 63%), followed by overlapping induction, dedicated unit/team/space feedback, financial incentives, team training, education, practice guidelines, and redefinition of roles/responsibilities. Studies were further categorized into one of two groups: (1) those that utilized predetermined interventions based on anecdotal experience or prior literature (18, 47.4%) and (2) those that conducted a prospective analysis on baseline data to inform intervention development (20, 52.6%). DISCUSSION: There are significant variability in the methodologies utilized to improve OR TOT; however, the most effective solutions involved process redesign bundles developed from a prospective investigation of the clinical work-system.

The Application of Human Factors Engineering to Reduce Operating Room Turnover in Robotic Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Challenges associated with turnover time are magnified in robotic surgery. The introduction of advanced technology increases the complexity of an already intricate perioperative environment. We applied a human factors approach to develop systematic, data-driven interventions to reduce robotic surgery turnover time. METHODS: Researchers observed 40 robotic surgery turnovers at a tertiary hospital [20 pre-intervention (Jan 2018 to Apr 2018), 20 post-intervention (Jan 2019 to Jun 2019)]. Components of turnover time, including cleaning, instrument and room set-up, robot preparation, flow disruptions, and major delays, were documented and analyzed. Surveys and focus groups were used to investigate staff perceptions of robotic surgery turnover time. A multidisciplinary team of human factors experts and physicians developed targeted interventions. Pre- and post-intervention turnovers were compared. RESULTS: Median turnover time was 67 min (mean: 72, SD: 24) and 22 major delays were noted (1.1/case). The largest contributors were instrument setup (25.5 min) and cleaning (25 min). Interventions included an electronic dashboard for turnover time reporting, clear designation of roles and simultaneous completion of tasks, process standardization of operating room cleaning, and data transparency through monthly reporting. Post-intervention turnovers were significantly shorter (U = 57.5, p = .000) and ten major delays were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Human factors analysis generated interventions to improve turnover time. Significant improvements were seen post-intervention with a reduction in turnover time by a 26 min and decrease in major delays by over 50%. Future opportunities to intervene and further improve turnover time include targeting pre- and post-operative care phases.

How Hospitals Can Save Lives and Themselves: Lessons on Patient Flow From the COVID-19 Pandemic.

COVID-19 has strained hospital capacity, detracted from patient care, and reduced hospital income. This article lays out a tested strategy that surgical and hospital leaders can use to overcome clinical and financial strain, emphasizing the experience at 2 leading North American medical centers. By classifying the time and resource needs of surgical patients and smoothing the flow of surgical admissions over all days of the week, hospitals can dramatically improve hospital efficiency, the quality of care and timely access to care for emergent and urgent surgeries. Through and beyond the time of COVID, smoothing the flow of surgical patients is a key means to restore hospital vitality and improve the care of all patients.

Beyond the Do-not-resuscitate Order: An Expanded Approach to Decision-making Regarding Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in Older Surgical Patients.

American Society of Anesthesiologists guidelines recommend that anesthesiologists revisit do-not-resuscitate orders preoperatively and revise them if necessary based on patient preferences. In patients without do-not-resuscitate orders or other directives limiting treatment however, "full code" is the default option irrespective of clinical circumstances and patient preferences. It is time to revisit this approach based on (1) increasing understanding of the power of default options in healthcare settings, (2) changing demographics and growing evidence suggesting that an expanding subset of patients is vulnerable to poor outcomes after perioperative cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and (3) recommendations from multiple societies promoting risk assessment and goal-concordant care in older surgical patients. The authors reconsider current guidelines in the context of these developments and advocate for an expanded approach to decision-making regarding CPR, which involves identifying high-risk elderly patients and eliciting their preferences regarding CPR irrespective of existing or presumed code status.

A Systems-based Approach to Reduce Deep Venous Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism in Trauma Patients.

BACKGROUND: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) in trauma patients carries significant morbidity and mortality. We previously described how titrating enoxaparin dosing by anti-Xa trough levels was associated with a lower VTE rate. We combined this strategy with a higher initial enoxaparin dose for a majority of patients and modified the electronic medical record (EMR) to encourage immediate dosing. We sought to determine if this systems-based approach was associated with a decrease in VTE rate. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective review was conducted of all trauma patients on prophylactic enoxaparin at an academic, Level I Trauma Center from 01/2013 to 05/2014 (PRE) and 06/2015 to 02/2018 (POST). The patients in PRE were prescribed enoxaparin 30 mg twice daily without dose adjustments. The patients in POST received 40 mg twice daily unless exclusion criteria applied, with doses titrated to maintain anti-Xa trough levels between 0.1 and 0.2 IU/mL. RESULTS: There were 478 patients in the PRE and 1306 in the POST. Compared to PRE, POST patients were of similar age and were as likely to present after blunt trauma, although POST patients had lower injury severity scores (10 vs. 9, p < 0.01). The overall VTE rate was lower in POST (6.9% vs. 3.6%, p < 0.01). The adjusted risk of VTE (AOR 0.61, adjusted p = 0.04) was lower in POST and POST was independently protective for VTE (AOR 0.54; p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: By implementing system changes to improve enoxaparin dosing after trauma, a significant reduction in VTE rate was observed. Wider application of this strategy should be considered.

Barriers to efficiency in robotic surgery: the resident effect.

BACKGROUND: Robotic surgery offers advantages over conventional operative approaches but may also be associated with higher costs and additional risks. Analyzing surgical flow disruptions (FDs), defined as "deviations from the natural progression of an operation," can help target training techniques and identify opportunities for improvement. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-two robotic surgery operations were observed over a 6-wk period at one 900-bed surgical center. FDs were recorded in detail and classified into one of 11 different categories. Procedure type, robot model, and resident involvement were also recorded. Linear regression analyses were used to evaluate the effects of these parameters on FDs and operative duration. RESULTS: Twenty-one prostatectomies, eight sacrocolpopexies, and three nephrectomies were observed. The mean number of FDs was 48.2 (95% confidence interval [CI] 38.6-54.8 FDs), and mean operative duration was 163 min (95% CI 148-179 min). Each FD added 2.4 min (P = 0.025) to a case's total operative duration. The number and rate of FDs were significantly affected by resident involvement (P = 0.008 and P = 0.006, respectively). Resident cases demonstrated mostly training, equipment, and robot switch FDs, whereas nonresident cases demonstrated mostly equipment, instrument changes, and external factor FDs. CONCLUSIONS: Although the FDs encountered in resident training are more frequent, they may not significantly increase operative duration. Other FDs, such as equipment or external factors, may be more impactful. Limiting these specific FDs should be the focus of performance improvement efforts.

Flow disruptions during trauma care.

BACKGROUND: Flow disruptions (FDs) are deviations from the progression of care that compromise safety or efficiency. The frequency and specific causes of FDs remain poorly documented in trauma care. We undertook this study to identify and quantify the rate of FDs during various phases of trauma care. METHODS: Seven trained observers studied a Level I trauma center over 2 months. Observers recorded details on FDs using a validated Tablet-PC data collection tool during various phases of care-trauma bay, imaging, operating room (OR)-and recorded work-system variables including breakdowns in communication and coordination, environmental distractions, equipment issues, and patient factors. RESULTS: Researchers observed 86 trauma cases including 72 low-level and 14 high-level activations. Altogether, 1,759 FDs were recorded (20.4/case). High-level trauma comprised a significantly higher number (p = 0.0003) and rate of FDs (p = 0.0158) than low-level trauma. Across the three phases of trauma care, there was a significant effect on FD number (p < 0.0001) and FD rate (p = 0.0005), with the highest in the OR, followed by computed tomography. The highest rates of FD per case and per hour were related to breakdowns in coordination. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the largest direct observational study of the trauma process conducted to date. Complexities associated with the critical patient who arrives in the trauma bay lead to a high prevalence of disruptions related to breakdowns in coordination, communication, equipment issues, and environmental factors. Prospective observation allows individual hospitals to identify and analyze these systemic deficiencies. Appropriate interventions can then be evaluated to streamline the care provided to trauma patients.

Flow disruptions in trauma care handoffs.

BACKGROUND: Effective handoffs of care are critical for maintaining patient safety and avoiding communication problems. Using the flow disruption observation technique, we examined transitions of care along the trauma pathway. We hypothesized that more transitions would lead to more disruptions, and that different pathways would have different numbers of disruptions. METHODS: We trained observers to identify flow disruptions, and then followed 181 patients from arrival in the emergency department (ED) to the completion of care using a specially formatted PC tablet. We mapped each patient's journey and recorded and classified flow disruptions during transition periods into seven categories. RESULTS: Mapping the transitions of care shows that approximately four of five patients were assessed in the ED, transferred to imaging for further diagnostics, and then returned to the ED. There was a mean of 2.2 ± 0.09 transitions per patient, a mean of 0.66 ± 0.15 flow disruptions per patient, and 0.31 ± 0.07 flow disruptions per transition. Most of these (53%) were related to coordination problems. Although disruptions did not rise with more transitions, patients who went directly to the operating room or needed direct admission to intensive care unit were significantly more likely (P=0.0028) to experience flow disruptions than those who took other, less expedited pathways. CONCLUSIONS: Transitions in trauma care are vulnerable to systems problems and human errors. Coordination problems predominate as the cause. Sicker, time-pressured, and more at-risk patients are more likely to experience problems. Safety practices used in motor racing and other industries might be applied to address these problems.

Understanding ultrarare adverse events - Lessons learned from a twelve-year review of intraoperative deaths at an academic medical center.

BACKGROUND: Intraoperative death (ID) is rare, the incidence remains challenging to quantify and learning opportunities are limited. We aimed to better define the demographics of ID by reviewing the longest single-site series. METHODS: Retrospective chart reviews, including a review of contemporaneous incident reports, were performed on all ID between March 2010 to August 2022 at an academic medical center. RESULTS: Over 12 years, 154 IDs occurred (∼13/year, average age: 54.3 years, male: 60%). Most occurred during emergency procedures (n = 115, 74.7%), 39 (25.3%) during elective procedures. Incident reports were submitted in 129 cases (84%). 21 (16.3%) reports cited 28 contributing factors including challenges with coordination (n = 8, 28.6%), skill-based errors (n = 7, 25.0%), and environmental factors (n = 3, 10.7%). CONCLUSIONS: Most deaths occurred in patients admitted from the ER with general surgical problems. Despite expectations for incident reporting, few provided actionable information on ergonomic factors which might help identify improvement opportunities.

A Human Factors Approach to Surgical Patient Safety.

This article explores the role of human factors engineering in patient safety in surgery. The authors discuss the history and evolution of human factors and the role of human factors in patient safety and provide a description of human factors methods used to study and improve patient safety.

Variations in the utilization of endovascular aneurysm repair reflect population risk factors and disease prevalence.

OBJECTIVE: Highly variable utilization rates for a diverse group of surgical procedures are commonly ascribed to physician practice patterns rather than clinical considerations. A previous investigation by our group showed that variations in the rates of carotid endarterectomy (CEA) actually reflected regional risk factors for atherosclerosis, not physician density or other socio-economic drivers. In this study, we examine the use of endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair (EVAR) over six years to test our hypothesis that the utilization of innovative vascular procedures by vascular surgeons more closely reflects disease prevalence and consistent clinical judgment than non-medical factors. METHODS: The Nationwide Inpatient Samples and State Inpatient Databases (2001-2006) were accessed to document the number and type of aneurysm repairs (EVAR versus open). Multiple metrics pertaining to clinical risk factors, socioeconomic status, access to care, provider distribution, and local healthcare capacity were quantitated for each state. We performed bivariate analysis, Pearson (PC) or Spearman (SC) correlations, and multiple regression modeling. RESULTS: The total number of aneurysms repaired has not changed significantly (from 45,828 in 2001 to 45,111 in 2006). Over the same interval, the number of open AAA repair nationwide decreased by 48% while the number of AAA repaired endovascularly increased by 105%. In 2005, the utilization rate of EVAR among 29 states ranged widely from 39.3% to 69.9%. Use of EVAR was highest in states with higher incidences of aneurysms (PC = 0.43, P < .05), greater number of deaths from heart disease (PC = 0.42, P < .05), greater number of diabetes discharges (PC = 0.48, P < .005), higher number of carotid stenosis discharges (PC = 0.40, P < .05), and higher number of chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) discharges (SC = 0.43, P < .05). Regional malpractice pressure, specifically the number of paid claims and mean malpractice premium, both exhibited positive correlations with the EVAR rate. The number of physicians, vascular surgeons, hospital beds, teaching hospitals, or trauma centers did not predict high utilization of EVAR nor did the other socio-economic indices tested. CONCLUSION: While there was substantial regional variation in the use of EVAR, utilization of the less morbid procedure was well correlated with higher risk populations (number of diabetic patients and deaths secondary to heart disease). Contrary to other studies of regional discrepancies in the utilization of some surgical procedures, it appears that the utilization of EVAR was not associated with physician distribution, socioeconomics, or other non-medical factors.

Surgical Supply Cost Awareness Is Associated With Lower Costs: A Single-Center Experience.

Surgeons are often unfamiliar with the costs of surgical instrumentation and supplies. We hypothesized that surgeon cost feedback would be associated with a reduction in cost. A multidisciplinary team evaluated surgical supply costs for laparoscopic appendectomies of 7 surgeons (surgeons A-G) at a single-center academic institution. In the intervention, each surgeon was debriefed with their average supply cost per case, their partner's average supply cost per case, the cost of each surgical instrument/supply, and the cost of alternatives. In addition, the laparoscopic appendectomy tray was standardized to remove extraneous instruments. Pre-intervention (March 2017-February 2018) and post-intervention (March 2018-October 2018) costs were compared. Pre-intervention, the surgeons' average supply cost per case ranged from $754-$1189; when ranked from most to least expensive, surgeon A > B > C > D > E > F > G. Post-intervention, the surgeons' average supply cost per case ranged from $676 to $846, and ranked from surgeon G > D > F > C > E > B > A. Overall, the average cost per case was lower in the post-intervention group ($854.35 vs. $731.11, P < .001). This resulted in savings per case of $123.24 (14.4%), to a total annualized savings of $29 151.

The gap in operative exposure in trauma surgery: quantifying the benefits of an international rotation.

BACKGROUND: International rotations with hands-on experience are commonly cited as a potential supplement to the current experience of surgical trainees in trauma; however, quantification of this experience remains unclear. METHODS: A link to an online survey was distributed by electronic mail to physicians who rotated for any period of time at the Trauma Unit of the Groote-Shuur Hospital of the University of Cape Town from January 1, 2006, to December 2016. RESULTS: Of 160 participants, 75 (47%) completed the survey. A high proportion (45%) had performed less than 25 trauma-related surgical procedures during their previous training. Most (56%) performed ≥ 10 trauma laparotomies and sternotomies/thoracotomies during their rotation, whereas 43% performed ≥ 5 vascular procedures. The level of perceived confidence in managing trauma patients increased significantly from a median of 3/10 to 7/10 (P < .05). CONCLUSION: Rotations at large-volume trauma centers abroad offer the opportunity for a hands-on operative experience and may enhance the confidence of surgical trainees. Further standardization of these opportunities may result in a larger-scale participation of graduate residents and fellows.

Discovering the barriers to efficient robotic operating room turnover time: perceptions vs. reality.

Turnover time (TOT) has remained the subject of numerous research articles and operating room (OR) committee discussions. Inefficiencies associated with TOT are multiplied when complex technology, such as surgical robots, is involved. Using a human factors approach, this study investigated impediments to efficient robotic TOT and team members' perceptions surrounding this topic. Researchers observed 20 robotic turnovers over 2 months at a tertiary hospital. TOT, cleaning time, number of staff present, bed set-up time, instrument set-up time and any major delays were recorded. Additionally, 79 OR team members completed a questionnaire regarding perceptions of OR turnover. Average TOT was 72 min (s, 24 min). Overall, cleaning required the most time (average of 27.4 min, 37.96% of TOT), followed by instrument set-up (15.4 min, 21.34% of TOT) and RN retrieval of the patient from pre-op (12 min, 17.72% of TOT). OR team members estimated that turnovers require 60.36 min. Physicians believed the greatest contributor to TOT was "time to set up the OR", while OR staff rated "instrument availability" as the greatest issue, both of which were inaccurate. OR team members' perceptions of robotic TOT and contributing factors were different from reality based on observed contributors. Data demonstrated several areas of opportunity for process improvement. These data can be used to guide the implementation of targeted interventions to improve TOT efficiency.

Regional variation in the utilization of carotid endarterectomy.

OBJECTIVE: In different regions of the United States, highly variable rates have been documented for a wide range of procedures, such as prostatectomy and caesarean section. It is generally held that this variation is due to inconsistent physician practice patterns or other nonmedical considerations. Only limited research has been conducted regarding vascular surgical operations. We examined national data on the utilization of carotid endarterectomy (CEA) to determine the extent and diversity of regional variations. METHODS: Medicare discharge data quantified the per capita rate of CEA in 50 states and the District of Columbia in 2003. Multiple metrics pertaining to risk factors, socioeconomic status, access to care, provider density, and local health care capacity were quantified. We performed bivariate analysis, Pearson (PC) or Spearman (SC) correlations, and multiple regression modeling. RESULTS: In 2003, 83,164 CEAs were performed on 28,767,985 enrollees. CEA rates were 28.9 +/- 7.8 per 10,000 (range, 5.6-44.7 per 10,000). The rate of CEA was highly correlated with the number of heart disease deaths (PC = 0.575, P < .0001), deaths by stroke (PC = 0.504, P = .0002), and percentage of adult smokers in a state (PC = 0.643, P < .0001). These three factors held the strongest association with variation in CEA rates. Statistically, they explained 51% of the variation in total number of CEAs (R(2) = 0.5074, P < .0001). Median annual income (PC = -0.608, P < .0001) and percentage of college degrees (PC = -0.606, P < .0001) displayed inverse relationships to CEA rates. Per capita hospital beds (SC = 0.540, P < .0001) and rural health care clinics (SC = 0.518, P < .0001) exhibited positive correlations. The number of physicians or vascular surgeons did not predict higher utilization of CEA. CONCLUSION: The strongest correlations for CEA were three markers associated with atherosclerotic disease: percentage of adult smokers and deaths from heart disease or stroke. Geographic variation in this vascular procedure is chiefly associated with variance in markers of disease prevalence, not physician preference or other nonmedical factors. The increased utilization of carotid stenting, accompanied by the participation of a much wider range of medical specialists, may affect this relationship in the future.

Association of Emotional Intelligence With Malpractice Claims: A Review.

IMPORTANCE: Approximately 8% of physicians experience a malpractice claim annually. Most malpractice claims are a result of adverse events, which may or may not be a result of medical errors. However, not all medicolegal cases are the result of medical errors or negligence, but rather, may be associated with the individual nature of the patient-physician relationship. The strength of this relationship may be partially determined by a physician's emotional intelligence (EI), or his or her ability to monitor and regulate his or her emotions as well as the emotions of others. This review evaluates the role of EI in developing the patient-physician relationship and how EI may influence patient decisions to pursue medicolegal action. OBSERVATIONS: Several physician characteristics are associated with increased medicolegal risk. Some of these traits, such as sex, age, level of experience, and specialty, are inherent. Other characteristics, such as patient interaction, patient satisfaction, and prior legal history, appear to be related to physicians themselves, yet they are modifiable if such physicians can be identified. Numerous tools exist that provide general measures of different aspects of EI. Furthermore, identification of those with lower EI and intervention with specific training has been shown to improve both EI and patient satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The study and effect of EI within medicine offers great opportunity to investigate how physician characteristics may influence one's EI, as well as medicolegal risk. This review suggests an indirect negative correlation between a physician's level of EI and his or her risk of litigation. Studies directly linking physicians with low EI to a higher risk of litigation are lacking and may provide valuable insight. Demonstrating such a correlation should prompt the development of interventions that may enhance a physician's level of EI early in his or her career and may limit future legal action.