BET bromodomain inhibition as a therapeutic strategy to target c-Myc.

MYC contributes to the pathogenesis of a majority of human cancers, yet strategies to modulate the function of the c-Myc oncoprotein do not exist. Toward this objective, we have targeted MYC transcription by interfering with chromatin-dependent signal transduction to RNA polymerase, specifically by inhibiting the acetyl-lysine recognition domains (bromodomains) of putative coactivator proteins implicated in transcriptional initiation and elongation. Using a selective small-molecule bromodomain inhibitor, JQ1, we identify BET bromodomain proteins as regulatory factors for c-Myc. BET inhibition by JQ1 downregulates MYC transcription, followed by genome-wide downregulation of Myc-dependent target genes. In experimental models of multiple myeloma, a Myc-dependent hematologic malignancy, JQ1 produces a potent antiproliferative effect associated with cell-cycle arrest and cellular senescence. Efficacy of JQ1 in three murine models of multiple myeloma establishes the therapeutic rationale for BET bromodomain inhibition in this disease and other malignancies characterized by pathologic activation of c-Myc.

Simultaneous profiling of chromatin accessibility and methylation on human cell lines with nanopore sequencing.

Probing epigenetic features on DNA has tremendous potential to advance our understanding of the phased epigenome. In this study, we use nanopore sequencing to evaluate CpG methylation and chromatin accessibility simultaneously on long strands of DNA by applying GpC methyltransferase to exogenously label open chromatin. We performed nanopore sequencing of nucleosome occupancy and methylome (nanoNOMe) on four human cell lines (GM12878, MCF-10A, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231). The single-molecule resolution allows footprinting of protein and nucleosome binding, and determination of the combinatorial promoter epigenetic signature on individual molecules. Long-read sequencing makes it possible to robustly assign reads to haplotypes, allowing us to generate a fully phased human epigenome, consisting of chromosome-level allele-specific profiles of CpG methylation and chromatin accessibility. We further apply this to a breast cancer model to evaluate differential methylation and accessibility between cancerous and noncancerous cells.

Author Correction: Nanopore native RNA sequencing of a human poly(A) transcriptome.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Nanopore native RNA sequencing of a human poly(A) transcriptome.

High-throughput complementary DNA sequencing technologies have advanced our understanding of transcriptome complexity and regulation. However, these methods lose information contained in biological RNA because the copied reads are often short and modifications are not retained. We address these limitations using a native poly(A) RNA sequencing strategy developed by Oxford Nanopore Technologies. Our study generated 9.9 million aligned sequence reads for the human cell line GM12878, using thirty MinION flow cells at six institutions. These native RNA reads had a median length of 771 bases, and a maximum aligned length of over 21,000 bases. Mitochondrial poly(A) reads provided an internal measure of read-length quality. We combined these long nanopore reads with higher accuracy short-reads and annotated GM12878 promoter regions to identify 33,984 plausible RNA isoforms. We describe strategies for assessing 3' poly(A) tail length, base modifications and transcript haplotypes.

Characterization of human telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter methylation and transcription factor binding in differentiated thyroid cancer cell lines.

Telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) activation plays an important role in cancer development by enabling the immortalization of cells. TERT regulation is multifaceted, and its promoter methylation has been implicated in controlling expression through alteration in transcription factor binding. We have characterized TERT promoter methylation, transcription factor binding, and TERT expression levels in five differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) cell lines and six normal thyroid tissue samples by targeted bisulfite sequencing, ChIP-qPCR, and qRT-PCR. DTC cell lines express varying levels of TERT and exhibit TERT promoter methylation patterns similar to patterns seen in other telomerase positive cancer cell lines. The minimal promoter immediately surrounding the transcription start site is hypomethylated, while further upstream portions show dense methylation. In contrast, the TERT promoter in normal thyroid tissue is largely unmethylated throughout and expresses TERT minimally. Transcription factor binding is also affected by TERT mutation status. The E-twenty-six (ETS) factor GABPA exhibits TERT binding in the TERT mutant DTC cells only, and allele-specific methylation patterns at the minimal promoter were observed as well, which may indicate allele-specific factor recruitment at the minimal promoter. Furthermore, we identified binding sites for activators MYC and GSC in the hypermethylated upstream region, pointing to its possible importance in TERT regulation. Overall, TERT expression and telomerase activity depend on the interplay of multiple regulatory mechanisms including TERT promoter methylation, mutation status, and recruitment of transcription factors. This work explores of the interplay between these regulatory mechanisms and offers insight into cellular control of active telomerase in human cancer.

IVT generation of guideRNAs for Cas9-enrichment Nanopore Sequencing.

Generating high-coverage sequencing coverage at select genomic loci has extensive applications in both research science and genetic medicine. Long-read sequencing technologies (e.g. nanopore sequencing) have expanded our ability to generate sequencing data in regions (e.g. repetitive elements) that are difficult to interrogate with short-read sequencing methods. In work presented here, we expand on our previous work using CRISPR/Cas9 for targeted nanopore sequencing by using in vitro transcribed guideRNAs, with 1100 guideRNAs in a single experiment. This approach decreases the cost per guideRNA, increases the number of guideRNAs that can be multiplexed in a single experiment, and provides a way to rapidly screen numerous guideRNAs for cutting efficiency. We apply this strategy in multiple patient-derived pancreatic cancer cell lines, demonstrating its ability to unveil structural variation in "deletion hotspots" around the tumor suppressor genes p16 (CDKN2A), and SMAD4.

Long read mitochondrial genome sequencing using Cas9-guided adaptor ligation.

The mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) is an important source of disease-causing genetic variability, but existing sequencing methods limit understanding, precluding phased measurement of mutations and clear detection of large sporadic deletions. We adapted a method for amplification-free sequence enrichment using Cas9 cleavage to obtain full length nanopore reads of mtDNA. We then utilized the long reads to phase mutations in a patient with an mtDNA-linked syndrome and demonstrated that this method can map age-induced mtDNA deletions. We believe this method will offer deeper insight into our understanding of mtDNA variation.

Characterization of Allele-Specific Regulation of Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase in Promoter Mutant Thyroid Cancer Cell Lines.

Background: Telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) promoter mutations play a role in carcinogenesis and are found in both tumors and cancer cell lines. TERT promoter methylation, transcription factor binding, chromatin remodeling, and alternative splicing are also known to play an integral role in TERT regulation. Methods: Using nanopore Cas9 targeted sequencing, we characterized allele-specific methylation in thyroid cancer cell lines heterozygous for the TERT promoter mutation. Furthermore, using chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by Sanger sequencing, we probed allele-specific binding of the transcription factors GABPA (GA binding protein transcription factor subunit alpha) and MYC, as well as the chromatin marks H3K4me3 and H3K27me3. Finally, using coding single nucleotide polymorphisms and the long-read sequencing, we examined complementary DNA for monoallelic expression (MAE). Results: We found the mutant TERT promoter allele to be significantly less methylated than wild type, while more methylated in the gene body in heterozygous TERT mutant cell lines. We demonstrated that the transcriptional activators GABPA and MYC bind only to the mutant TERT allele. In addition, the activating and repressive chromatin marks H3K4me3 and H3K27me3, respectively, bind mutant and wild-type alleles exclusively. Finally, in heterozygous mutant cell lines, TERT exhibits MAE from the mutant allele only. Conclusions: In summary, by employing new long-read sequencing methods, we were able to definitively demonstrate allele-specific DNA methylation, histone modifications, transcription factor binding, and the resulting monoallelic transcription in cell lines with heterozygous TERT mutations.

Targeted nanopore sequencing with Cas9-guided adapter ligation.

Despite recent improvements in sequencing methods, there remains a need for assays that provide high sequencing depth and comprehensive variant detection. Current methods1-4 are limited by the loss of native modifications, short read length, high input requirements, low yield or long protocols. In the present study, we describe nanopore Cas9-targeted sequencing (nCATS), an enrichment strategy that uses targeted cleavage of chromosomal DNA with Cas9 to ligate adapters for nanopore sequencing. We show that nCATS can simultaneously assess haplotype-resolved single-nucleotide variants, structural variations and CpG methylation. We apply nCATS to four cell lines, to a cell-line-derived xenograft, and to normal and paired tumor/normal primary human breast tissue. Median sequencing coverage was 675× using a MinION flow cell and 34× using the smaller Flongle flow cell. The nCATS sequencing requires only ~3 µg of genomic DNA and can target a large number of loci in a single reaction. The method will facilitate the use of long-read sequencing in research and in the clinic.

Reprogramming of Polycomb-Mediated Gene Silencing in Embryonic Stem Cells by the miR-290 Family and the Methyltransferase Ash1l.

Members of the miR-290 family are the most abundantly expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs). They regulate aspects of differentiation, pluripotency, and proliferation of ESCs, but the molecular program that they control has not been fully delineated. In the absence of Dicer, ESCs fail to express mature miR-290 miRNAs and have selective aberrant overexpression of Hoxa, Hoxb, Hoxc, and Hoxd genes essential for body plan patterning during embryogenesis, but they do not undergo a full differentiation program. Introduction of mature miR-291 into DCR(-/-) ESCs restores Hox gene silencing. This was attributed to the unexpected regulation of Polycomb-mediated gene targeting by miR-291. We identified the methyltransferase Ash1l as a pivotal target of miR-291 mediating this effect. Collectively, our data shed light on the role of Dicer in ESC homeostasis by revealing a facet of molecular regulation by the miR-290 family.