The cytoplasmic AID complex.

Although AID fulfils its physiological function of diversifying antibody genes in the nucleus, most of the AID protein within the cell is found in a complex located in the cytoplasm. In this review, we summarize what is currently known about this cytoplasmic AID complex. Its size has been estimated to lie between 300 and 500kDa (sedimentation coefficient of 10-11S) and it comprises the abundant protein translation elongation factor 1α (eEF1A) as a major stoichiometric component. We speculate on the possible roles of this complex as well as of chaperones known to interact with AID in regulating the cytosolic retention of AID and its controlled release for import into the nucleus.

Cytoplasmic activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) exists in stoichiometric complex with translation elongation factor 1α (eEF1A).

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) is a B lymphocyte-specific DNA deaminase that acts on the Ig loci to trigger antibody gene diversification. Most AID, however, is retained in the cytoplasm and its nuclear abundance is carefully regulated because off-target action of AID leads to cancer. The nature of the cytosolic AID complex and the mechanisms regulating its release from the cytoplasm and import into the nucleus remain unknown. Here, we show that cytosolic AID in DT40 B cells is part of an 11S complex and, using an endogenously tagged AID protein to avoid overexpression artifacts, that it is bound in good stoichiometry to the translation elongation factor 1 alpha (eEF1A). The AID/eEF1A interaction is recapitulated in transfected cells and depends on the C-terminal domain of eEF1A (which is not responsible for GTP or tRNA binding). The eEF1A interaction is destroyed by mutations in AID that affect its cytosolic retention. These results suggest that eEF1A is a cytosolic retention factor for AID and extend on the multiple moonlighting functions of eEF1A.

Influence of the bispecific antibody IgG subclass on T cell redirection.

T cell redirection mediated by bispecific antibodies (BsAbs) is a promising cancer therapy. Dual antigen binding is necessary for potent T cell redirection and is influenced by the structural characteristics of a BsAb, which are dependent on its IgG subclass. In this study, model BsAbs targeting CD19xCD3 were generated in variants of IgG1, IgG2, and IgG4 carrying Fc mutations that reduce FcγR interaction, and two chimeric IgG subclasses termed IgG1:2 and IgG4:2, in which the IgG1- or IgG4-F(ab)2 are grafted on an IgG2 Fc. Molecules containing an IgG2 or IgG4-F(ab)2 domain were confirmed to be the most structurally compact molecules. All BsAbs were shown to bind both of their target proteins (and corresponding cells) equally well. However, CD19xCD3 IgG2 did not bind both antigens simultaneously as measured by the absence of cellular clustering of T cells with target cells. This translated to a reduced potency of IgG2 BsAbs in T-cell redirection assays. The activity of IgG2 BsAbs was fully restored in the chimeric subclasses IgG4:2 and IgG1:2. This confirmed the major contribution of the F(ab)2 region to the BsAb's functional activity and demonstrated that function of BsAbs can be modulated by engineering molecules combining different Fc and F(ab)2 domains. Abbreviations: ADCC: Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity; AlphaScreenTM: Amplified Luminescent Proximity Homogeneous Assay Screening; ANOVA: Analysis of variance; BiTE: bispecific T-cell engager; BSA: bovine serum albumin; BsAb: bispecific antibody; cFAE: controlled Fab-arm exchange; CDC: complement-dependent cellular cytotoxicity; CIEX: cation-exchange; CIR: chimeric immune receptor; DPBS: Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline; EC50 value: effective concentration to reach half-maximum effect; EGFR: epidermal growth factor receptor; EI: expansion index (RAt=x/RAt=0); FACS: fluorescence-activated cell sorting; FVD: fixable viability dye; HI-HPLC: hydrophobic interaction HPLC; HI-FBS: heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum; HPLC: high-pressure liquid chromatography; IC50 value: effective concentration to reach half-maximum inhibition; IQ: Inhibition Quotient; IS: immunological synapse; MES: 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid; R-PE: recombinant phycoerythrin; RA: red area in µm2/well; RD: receptor density; RFP: red fluorescent protein; Rg: radius of gyration; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; SAXS: small-angle x-ray scattering; scFv: single-chain variable fragment; SD: standard deviation; SPR: surface plasmon resonance; WT: wild-type.

Alu elements as regulators of gene expression.

Alu elements are the most abundant repetitive elements in the human genome; they emerged 65 million years ago from a 5' to 3' fusion of the 7SL RNA gene and amplified throughout the human genome by retrotransposition to reach the present number of more than one million copies. Over the last years, several lines of evidence demonstrated that these elements modulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level in at least three independent manners. They have been shown to be involved in alternative splicing, RNA editing and translation regulation. These findings highlight how the genome adapted to these repetitive elements by assigning them important functions in regulation of gene expression. Alu elements should therefore be considered as a large reservoir of potential regulatory functions that have been actively participating in primate evolution.

Alu RNP and Alu RNA regulate translation initiation in vitro.

Alu elements are the most abundant repetitive elements in the human genome; they emerged from the signal recognition particle RNA gene and are composed of two related but distinct monomers (left and right arms). Alu RNAs transcribed from these elements are present at low levels at normal cell growth but various stress conditions increase their abundance. Alu RNAs are known to bind the cognate proteins SRP9/14. We purified synthetic Alu RNP, composed of Alu RNA in complex with SRP9/14, and investigated the effects of Alu RNPs and naked Alu RNA on protein translation. We found that the dimeric Alu RNP and the monomeric left and right Alu RNPs have a general dose-dependent inhibitory effect on protein translation. In the absence of SRP9/14, Alu RNA has a stimulatory effect on all reporter mRNAs. The unstable structure of sRight RNA suggests that the differential activities of Alu RNP and Alu RNA may be explained by conformational changes in the RNA. We demonstrate that Alu RNPs and Alu RNAs do not stably associate with ribosomes during translation and, based on the analysis of polysome profiles and synchronized translation, we show that Alu RNP and Alu RNA regulate translation at the level of initiation.

VNAR single-domain antibodies specific for BAFF inhibit B cell development by molecular mimicry.

B cell-activating factor (BAFF) plays a dominant role in the B cell homeostasis. However, excessive BAFF promotes the development of autoreactive B-cells and several antibodies have been developed to block its activity. Bispecific antibodies with added functionality represent the next wave of biologics that may be more effective in the treatment of complex autoimmune disease. The single variable domain from the immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (VNAR) is one of the smallest antibody recognition units that could be combined with monospecific antibodies to develop bispecific agents. We isolated a panel of BAFF-binding VNARs with low nM potency from a semi-synthetic phage display library and examined their functional activity. The anti-BAFF VNARs blocked the binding of BAFF to all three of its receptors (BR3, TACI and BCMA) and the presence of the conserved DXL receptor motif found in the CDR3 regions suggests molecular mimicry as the mechanism of antagonism. One clone was formatted as an Fc fusion for functional testing and it was found to inhibit both mouse and human BAFF with equal potency ex vivo in a splenocyte proliferation assay. In mice, subchronic administration reduced the number of immature and transitional intermediates B cells and mature B cell subsets. These results indicate that VNAR single domain antibodies function as selective B-cell inhibitors and offer an alternative molecular format for targeting B-cell disorders.

Long term in vitro-cultured plant cells show typical neoplastic features at the cytological level.

Cells from a green normal (dependent on exogenous hormones) callus and from an achlorophyllous fully habituated (independent from exogenous hormones) callus, both generated from the same sugarbeet strain more than twenty years ago, were reexamined cytologically, ten years after the first comparative description. Cells from the habituated callus, already considered as neoplastic cells, because terminating a neoplastic progression where the organogenic totipotency was lost, still showed nuclear invaginations, polynucleolation, vacuolation of nucleoli and incomplete cell walls, nevertheless at a higher degree. The present study particularly shows that, compared to their previous description, normal cells have started to acquire some features (polynucleolation, nuclear invaginations.) that are typical of the neoplastic cells. This suggests that normal cells, on the long term, also entered a neoplastic progression, which should explain the known progressive loss of regeneration capacity of too long subcultured hormone-dependent calli.