RNA sequencing reveals a complete picture of a homozygous missense variant in a patient with VPS13D movement disorder: a case report and review of the literature.

RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is a complementary diagnostic tool to exome sequencing (ES), only recently clinically available to undiagnosed patients post-ES, that provides functional information on variants of unknown significance (VUS) by evaluating its effect on RNA transcription. ES became clinically available in the early 2010s and promised an agnostic platform for patients with a neurological disease, especially for those who believed to have a genetic etiology. However, the massive data generated by ES pose challenges in variant interpretation, especially for rare missense, synonymous, and deep intronic variants that may have a splicing effect. Without functional study and/or family segregation analysis, these rare variants would be likely interpreted as VUS which is difficult for clinicians to use in clinical care. Clinicians are able to assess the VUS for phenotypic overlap, but this additional information alone is usually not enough to re-classify a variant. Here, we report a case of a 14-month-old male who presented to clinic with a history of seizures, nystagmus, cerebral palsy, oral aversion, global developmental delay, and poor weight gain requiring gastric tube placement. ES revealed a previously unreported homozygous missense VUS, c.7406A > G p.(Asn2469Ser), in VPS13D. This variant has not been previously reported in genome aggregation database (gnomAD), ClinVar, or in any peer-reviewed published literature. By RNA-seq, we demonstrated that this variant mainly impacts splicing and results in a frameshift and early termination. It is expected to generate either a truncated protein, p.(Val2468fs*19), or no protein from this transcript due to nonsense-mediated mRNA decay leading to VPS13D deficiency. To our knowledge, this is the first case utilizing RNA-seq to further functionally characterize a homozygous novel missense VUS in VPS13D and confirm its impact on splicing. This confirmed pathogenicity gave the diagnosis of VPS13D movement disorder to this patient. Therefore, clinicians should consider utilizing RNA-seq to clarify VUS by evaluating its effect on RNA transcription.

Presentation, diagnosis and treatment of bilateral Rasmussen's encephalitis in a 12-year-old female.

AIM: To describe the clinical course and pathological diagnosis of a 12-year-old female who presented with an acute syndrome of right hemispheric epilepsy and cortical dysfunction and brain MRI demonstrating atrophy of the left cerebral and right cerebellar hemispheres. RESULTS: The patient presented with occasional partial seizures consisting of a left calf sensation followed by left leg clonic jerking. Initial brain MRI showed left cerebral and right cerebellar atrophy with T2 hyperintensity in the left parietal region. After six months, the seizure frequency increased and semiology evolved to include frequent clonic movements of the left side of the face, arm and leg and epilepsia partialis continua (EPC) of the left arm and leg. There was progressive weakness of the left leg and, to a lesser extent, her left arm. MRI at this time demonstrated an additional T2 hyperintensity in the right frontal lobe. An extensive evaluation for paraneoplastic, mitochondrial, and genetic epilepsy syndromes was unrevealing. On biopsy evaluation, chronic T-cell mediated encephalitis was demonstrated within bilateral frontal lobes. Treatment with immunomodulatory therapy resulted in some improvement in her seizure frequency and motor function. CONCLUSION: Rasmussen's encephalitis can be a challenging diagnosis. The patient's clinical history, including EPC, with bilateral frontal lobe biopsies confirming a T-cell mediated encephalitis supports a diagnosis of bilateral Rasmussen encephalitis. This case highlights the diagnostic challenges and treatment dilemmas that arise in an adolescent presenting with bilateral inflammatory lesions of Rasmussen's encephalitis. [Published with video sequences].

Clinically available testing options resulting in diagnosis in post-exome clinic at one medical center.

Exome sequencing (ES) became clinically available in 2011 and promised an agnostic, unbiased next-generation sequencing (NGS) platform for patients with symptoms believed to have a genetic etiology. The diagnostic yield of ES has been estimated to be between 25-40% and may be higher in specific clinical scenarios. Those who remain undiagnosed may have no molecular findings of interest on ES, variants of uncertain significance in genes that are linked to human disease, or variants of uncertain significance in candidate genes that are not definitively tied to human disease. Recent evidence suggests that a post-exome evaluation consisting of clinical re-phenotyping, functional studies of candidate variants in known genes, and variant reevaluation can lead to a diagnosis in 5-15% of additional cases. In this brief research study, we present our experience on post-exome evaluations in a cohort of patients who are believed to have a genetic etiology for their symptoms. We have reached a full or partial diagnosis in approximately 18% (6/33) of cases that have completed evaluations to date. We accomplished this by utilizing NGS-based methods that are available on a clinical basis. A sample of these cases highlights the utility of ES reanalysis with updated phenotyping allowing for the discovery of new genes, re-adjudication of known variants, incorporating updated phenotypic information, utilizing functional testing such as targeted RNA sequencing, and deploying other NGS-based testing methods such as gene panels and genome sequencing to reach a diagnosis.

De novo mutations in KIF1A cause progressive encephalopathy and brain atrophy.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the cause and course of a novel syndrome with progressive encephalopathy and brain atrophy in children. METHODS: Clinical whole-exome sequencing was performed for global developmental delay and intellectual disability; some patients also had spastic paraparesis and evidence of clinical regression. Six patients were identified with de novo missense mutations in the kinesin gene KIF1A. The predicted functional disruption of these mutations was assessed in silico to compare the calculated conformational flexibility and estimated efficiency of ATP binding to kinesin motor domains of wild-type (WT) versus mutant alleles. Additionally, an in vitro microtubule gliding assay was performed to assess the effects of de novo dominant, inherited recessive, and polymorphic variants on KIF1A motor function. RESULTS: All six subjects had severe developmental delay, hypotonia, and varying degrees of hyperreflexia and spastic paraparesis. Microcephaly, cortical visual impairment, optic neuropathy, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, epilepsy, and movement disorders were also observed. All six patients had a degenerative neurologic course with progressive cerebral and cerebellar atrophy seen on sequential magnetic resonance imaging scans. Computational modeling of mutant protein structures when compared to WT kinesin showed substantial differences in conformational flexibility and ATP-binding efficiency. The de novo KIF1A mutants were nonmotile in the microtubule gliding assay. INTERPRETATION: De novo mutations in KIF1A cause a degenerative neurologic syndrome with brain atrophy. Computational and in vitro assays differentiate the severity of dominant de novo heterozygous versus inherited recessive KIF1A mutations. The profound effect de novo mutations have on axonal transport is likely related to the cause of progressive neurologic impairment in these patients.

Early spinal cord and brainstem involvement in infantile Leigh syndrome possibly caused by a novel variant.

Leigh syndrome, due to a dysfunction of mitochondrial energy metabolism, is a genetically heterogeneous and progressive neurologic disorder that usually occurs in infancy and childhood. Its clinical presentation and neuroimaging findings can be variable, especially early in the course of the disease. This report presents a patient with infantile Leigh syndrome who had atypical radiologic findings on serial neuroimaging studies with early and severe involvement of the cervical spinal cord and brainstem and injury to the thalami and basal ganglia occurring only late in the clinical course. Postmortem microscopic examination supported this timing of injury within the central nervous system. In addition, mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing showed a novel homoplasmic variant that could be responsible for this unique lethal form of Leigh syndrome.

Narcolepsy-cataplexy: is streptococcal infection a trigger?

Narcolepsy-cataplexy is an uncommon sleep disorder which may present in childhood. We report a case of an 8-year-old presenting with narcolepsy-cataplexy following a streptococcal infection. Autoimmune etiology for narcolepsy has been suggested. In our patient increased anti-streptolysin O and anti-DNAse B titers were noted. As suggested by recent cases, the streptococcal infection was likely a trigger for narcolepsy onset in this genetically predisposed child. The patient was initially diagnosed as having Sydenham chorea due to motor movements. However, these transient movements may be due to the narcolepsy onset. Narcolepsy in childhood may present with atypical symptoms; it might be difficult to obtain accurate history and can be misdiagnosed as in the reported case. A high index of clinical suspicion is needed to diagnose these patients.

Corpus callosotomy for treatment of pediatric refractory status epilepticus.

Medically refractory status epilepticus (RSE) causes high morbidity and mortality in children. There are no evidence-based guidelines for treatment. Epilepsy surgery is a treatment option for RSE. We describe a 9-year-old boy treated successfully for RSE with complete corpus callosotomy (CC). Epilepsy surgery should be considered for prolonged RSE. In the absence of evidence of focal epileptogenesis, complete corpus callosotomy may be effective in select cases.

When should clinicians order genetic testing for Dravet syndrome?

The role of neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel, α-1 subunit (SCN1A) gene mutations in Dravet syndrome is well-established. With a broader phenotype than initially described, some patients lack features of Dravet syndrome as defined by the International League Against Epilepsy. We evaluated the predictive value of International League Against Epilepsy criteria for a positive mutation in a cohort of consecutively tested children. Mutations of SCN1A were evident in 16 of 69 children. Exhibiting ≥4 International League Against Epilepsy criteria demonstrated 100% sensitivity. Seven criteria (resistance to multiple antiepileptic drugs, multiple seizure types, abnormal electroencephalogram features, exacerbation with hyperthermia, normal development before seizure onset, seizures beginning before age 1 year, and psychomotor retardation) were present in ≥85% of mutation-positive cases. The three criteria that best predicted a mutation in SCN1A included exacerbation with hyperthermia, normal development before seizure onset, and the appearance of ataxia, pyramidal signs, or interictal myoclonus. We have demonstrated a high-sensitivity testing strategy for detecting mutations of SCN1A in children with suspected Dravet syndrome.