Clients' and providers' perspectives in informing a digital health intervention to improve linkage to care after Index HIV self-testing in Hai and Moshi Districts, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Digital health interventions have the potential to improve linkage to care after HIV self-testing (HIVST). This study aimed to understand clients' and providers' perceptions of benefits, and barriers of a digital health intervention designed to improve linkage to care after HIV self-testing in Tanzania. METHODS: This exploratory qualitative research study was conducted in Hai and Moshi, districts in Kilimanjaro region, Tanzania. Four health facilities were selected based on their involvement in an HIVST pilot program implemented by Elizabeth Glassier Pediatric AIDS Foundation (EGPAF) Tanzania through the USAID funded program. The study included female index clients and their partners, and healthcare providers at the healthcare facilities. We used a semi-structured interview guide with open-ended questions for data collection. Data collection was conducted from 16th January 2023 to 3rd February 2023. Thematic analysis of the qualitative data was conducted, guided by the Health Belief Model (HBM), and results were developed in collaboration with the community partners. RESULTS: A total of 42 participants were included in the study, comprising 9 male clients, 17 female index clients, and 16 health care workers (HCWs) (4 male and 12 female) who were involved in delivering HIVST services. The study's findings revealed mixed feelings about the use of a digital health intervention. Majority of participants perceived digital health as a valuable intervention for enhancing linkage to care, improved health outcomes, improved communication with healthcare workers, and increased privacy. Therefore, they supported scale-up of a digital health intervention. Participants also expressed that the potential benefits of a digital health intervention include the convenience of accessing healthcare services from the comfort of their homes or any location. However, a few participants expressed concerns about potential risks associated with sending health-related text messages. They feared that recipients might not be in a safe space, leading to stigma and avoidance of engagement. A few female participants expressed concerns about confidentiality breaches, particularly regarding shared phones with family or friends. Fear of being judged or misunderstood by others could deter them from reading or acting upon these messages. Most participants recommended tailored strategies that prioritize confidentiality and trust. Recognizing these psychological aspects is vital for customizing digital health interventions to effectively address participants' concerns. CONCLUSIONS: Digital health interventions may improve the linkage of HIV self-testers to care. Recommendations include personalized and culturally relevant communication and technical accessibility to make interventions effective and inclusive. This study provides valuable insights for designing patient-centered interventions for HIV care and treatment.

Symptoms and functional limitations related to respiratory health and carbon monoxide poisoning in Tanzania: a cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: The burden of chronic respiratory symptoms and respiratory functional limitations is underestimated in Africa. Few data are available on carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning in sub-Saharan Africa and existing data is derived from CO in ambient air, but not from biomarkers in the blood. METHODS: Data from the Tanzanian Lung Health study, a cross-sectional study on lung health among outpatients and visitors to an urban as well as a rural hospital in Tanzania, was analyzed to describe respiratory symptoms and functional limitations. Saturation of peripheral blood with carbon monoxide (SpCO) was measured transcutaneously and non-invasively in participants using a modified pulse oxymeter indicative of CO poisoning. Univariate and multivariate analysis was performed. RESULTS: Nine hundred and ninety-seven participants were included in the analysis, the median age of participants was 46 years (49% male). 38% of participants reported some degree of chronic shortness of breath and 26% felt limited in their daily activities or at work by this symptom. The median SpCO was 7% (IQR 4-13, range 2-31%) among all participants without active smoking status (N = 808). Participants cooking with gas or electricity had the lowest SpCO (median 5%), followed by participants cooking with charcoal (median 7%). Cooking with wood, particularly using a stove, resulted in highest SpCO (median 11.5%). Participants from households where cooking takes place in a separate room had the lowest SpCO as compared to cooking outside or cooking in a shared room inside (6% vs. 9% vs.10.5%, p < 0.01). Sex or the activity of cooking itself was not associated with a difference in SpCO. Multivariate analysis confirmed cooking in a separate room (as compared to cooking outside) and living in a rural vs. urban setting as protective factors against high SpCO. CONCLUSION: The findings demonstrate a high burden of chronic respiratory symptoms which also cause socioeconomic impact. High levels of SpCO indicate a relevant burden of carbon monoxide poisoning in the local population. The level of CO in the blood is more dependent on shared exposure to sources of CO with the type of housing and type of cooking fuel as most relevant factors, and less on person-individual risk factors or activities.

Impact of the diagnostic test Xpert MTB/RIF on patient outcomes for tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends Xpert MTB/RIF in place of smear microscopy to diagnose tuberculosis (TB), and many countries have adopted it into their diagnostic algorithms. However, it is not clear whether the greater accuracy of the test translates into improved health outcomes. OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of Xpert MTB/RIF on patient outcomes in people being investigated for tuberculosis. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following databases, without language restriction, from 2007 to 24 July 2020: Cochrane Infectious Disease Group (CIDG) Specialized Register; CENTRAL; MEDLINE OVID; Embase OVID; CINAHL EBSCO; LILACS BIREME; Science Citation Index Expanded (Web of Science), Social Sciences citation index (Web of Science), and Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Social Science & Humanities (Web of Science). We also searched the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry for ongoing trials. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included individual- and cluster-randomized trials, and before-after studies, in participants being investigated for tuberculosis. We analysed the randomized and non-randomized studies separately.  DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: For each study, two review authors independently extracted data, using a piloted data extraction tool. We assessed the risk of bias using Cochrane and Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) tools. We used random effects meta-analysis to allow for heterogeneity between studies in setting and design.  The certainty of the  evidence in the randomized trials was assessed by GRADE. MAIN RESULTS: We included 12 studies: eight were randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and four were before-and-after studies. Most included RCTs had a low risk of bias in most domains of the Cochrane 'Risk of bias' tool. There was inconclusive evidence of an effect of Xpert MTB/RIF on all-cause mortality, both overall (risk ratio (RR) 0.89, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.75 to 1.05; 5 RCTs, 9932 participants, moderate-certainty evidence), and restricted to studies with six-month follow-up (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.22; 3 RCTs, 8143 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). There was probably a reduction in mortality in participants known to be infected with HIV (odds ratio (OR) 0.80, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.96; 5 RCTs, 5855 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). It is uncertain whether Xpert MTB/RIF has no or a modest effect on the proportion of participants starting tuberculosis treatment who had a successful treatment outcome (OR) 1.10, 95% CI 0.96 to 1.26; 3RCTs, 4802 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). There was also inconclusive evidence of an effect on the  proportion of participants who were treated for tuberculosis (RR 1.10, 95% CI 0.98 to 1.23; 5 RCTs, 8793 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). The proportion of participants treated for tuberculosis who had bacteriological confirmation was probably higher in the Xpert MTB/RIF group (RR 1.44, 95% CI 1.29 to 1.61; 6 RCTs, 2068 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). The proportion of participants with bacteriological confirmation who were lost to follow-up pre-treatment was probably reduced (RR 0.59, 95% CI 0.41 to 0.85; 3 RCTs, 1217 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: We were unable to confidently rule in or rule out the effect on all-cause mortality of using Xpert MTB/RIF rather than smear microscopy. Xpert MTB/RIF probably reduces mortality among participants known to be infected with HIV. We are uncertain whether Xpert MTB/RIF has a modest effect or not on the proportion treated or, among those treated, on the proportion with a successful outcome. It probably does not have a substantial effect on these outcomes. Xpert MTB/RIF probably increases both the proportion of treated participants who had bacteriological confirmation, and the proportion with a laboratory-confirmed diagnosis who were treated. These findings may inform decisions about uptake alongside evidence on cost-effectiveness and implementation.

ANTECEDENTES: La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) recomienda la Xpert MTB/RIF en lugar de la baciloscopia para diagnosticar la tuberculosis (TB) y muchos países la han adoptado en sus algoritmos de diagnóstico. Sin embargo, no está claro si la mayor exactitud de la prueba se traduce en mejores desenlaces de salud. OBJETIVOS: Evaluar el impacto de la Xpert MTB/RIF en los desenlaces de las personas sometidas a pruebas para la tuberculosis. MÉTODOS DE BÚSQUEDA: Se realizaron búsquedas en las siguientes bases de datos, sin restricción de idioma, desde 2007 hasta el 24 de julio de 2020: Registro especializado del Grupo Cochrane de Enfermedades infecciosas (Cochrane Infectious Disease Group [CIDG]); CENTRAL; MEDLINE OVID; Embase OVID; CINAHL EBSCO; LILACS BIREME; Science Citation Index Expanded (Web of Science), Social Sciences citation index (Web of Science), y Conference Proceedings Citation Index ­ Social Science & Humanities (Web of Science). También se buscaron ensayos en curso en la Plataforma de registros internacionales de ensayos clínicos de la OMS, en ClinicalTrials.gov y en el Pan African Clinical Trials Registry. CRITERIOS DE SELECCIÓN: Se incluyeron ensayos aleatorizados individuales y por conglomerados, y estudios tipo antes y después (before­after studie), con participantes sometidos a pruebas para la tuberculosis. Los estudios aleatorizados y no aleatorizados se analizaron por separado. OBTENCIÓN Y ANÁLISIS DE LOS DATOS: Dos autores de la revisión, de forma independiente, extrajeron los datos de cada estudio mediante una herramienta de extracción de datos analizada. El riesgo de sesgo se evaluó mediante las herramientas de Cochrane y del Grupo Cochrane para una Práctica y organización sanitarias efectivas (Effective Practice and Organisation of Care [EPOC]). Se utilizó el metanálisis de efectos aleatorios para considerar la heterogeneidad entre los estudios en cuanto al contexto y el diseño. La certeza de la evidencia en los ensayos aleatorizados se evaluó mediante el método GRADE. RESULTADOS PRINCIPALES: Se incluyeron 12 estudios: ocho eran ensayos controlados aleatorizados (ECA) y cuatro eran estudios tipo antes y después. La mayoría de los ECA incluidos tenían un bajo riesgo de sesgo en la mayoría de los dominios de la herramienta Cochrane "Risk of bias". Hubo evidencia no concluyente de un efecto de la Xpert MTB/RIF sobre la mortalidad por todas las causas, tanto en general (razón de riesgos [RR] 0,89; intervalo de confianza [IC] del 95%: 0,75 a 1,05; cinco ECA, 9932 participantes, evidencia de certeza moderada), como limitada a los estudios con seguimiento de seis meses (RR 0,98; IC del 95%: 0,78 a 1,22; tres ECA, 8143 participantes; evidencia de certeza moderada). Probablemente hubo una reducción de la mortalidad en los participantes que se sabía que estaban infectados por el VIH (odds ratio [OR] 0,80; IC del 95%: 0,67 a 0,96; cinco ECA, 5855 participantes; evidencia de certeza moderada). No está claro si la Xpert MTB/RIF no tiene efectos o tiene un efecto modesto sobre la proporción de participantes que inician el tratamiento de la tuberculosis y que tienen un desenlace exitoso del tratamiento (OR 1,10; IC del 95%: 0,96 a 1,26; tres ECA, 4802 participantes; evidencia de certeza moderada). También hubo evidencia no concluyente de un efecto sobre el porcentaje de participantes que recibieron tratamiento para la tuberculosis (RR 1,10; IC del 95%: 0,98 a 1,23; cinco ECA, 8793 participantes; evidencia de certeza moderada). Es probable que la proporción de participantes tratados por tuberculosis que tuvieron confirmación bacteriológica fuera mayor en el grupo de Xpert MTB/RIF (RR 1,44; IC del 95%: 1,29 a 1,61; seis ECA, 2068 participantes; evidencia de certeza moderada). Es probable que se redujera la proporción de participantes con confirmación bacteriológica que se perdió durante el seguimiento previo al tratamiento (RR 0,59; IC del 95%: 0,41 a 0,85; tres ECA, 1217 participantes; evidencia de certeza moderada). CONCLUSIONES DE LOS AUTORES: No fue posible descartar con seguridad el efecto sobre la mortalidad por todas las causas del uso de Xpert MTB/RIF en lugar de la baciloscopia. La Xpert MTB/RIF probablemente reduce la mortalidad en los participantes que se sabe que están infectados por el VIH. No hay certeza con respecto a si la Xpert MTB/RIF tiene un efecto modesto o no en la proporción tratada o, entre los tratados, en la proporción con un desenlace exitoso. Probablemente no tenga un efecto importante sobre estos desenlaces. La Xpert MTB/RIF probablemente aumenta la proporción de participantes tratados que tenían confirmación bacteriológica, así como la de aquellos con un diagnóstico confirmado por el laboratorio que fueron tratados. Estos hallazgos podrían servir de base para las decisiones sobre la adopción de la prueba, junto con la evidencia sobre la coste­efectividad y la aplicación.

Xpert Ultra versus Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (Xpert Ultra) are World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended rapid tests that simultaneously detect tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in people with signs and symptoms of tuberculosis. This review builds on our recent extensive Cochrane Review of Xpert MTB/RIF accuracy. OBJECTIVES: To compare the diagnostic accuracy of Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF for the detection of pulmonary tuberculosis and detection of rifampicin resistance in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis. For pulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance, we also investigated potential sources of heterogeneity. We also summarized the frequency of Xpert Ultra trace-positive results, and estimated the accuracy of Xpert Ultra after repeat testing in those with trace-positive results. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, MEDLINE, Embase, Science Citation Index, Web of Science, LILACS, Scopus, the WHO ICTRP, the ISRCTN registry, and ProQuest to 28 January 2020 with no language restriction. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included diagnostic accuracy studies using respiratory specimens in adults with presumptive pulmonary tuberculosis that directly compared the index tests. For pulmonary tuberculosis detection, the reference standards were culture and a composite reference standard. For rifampicin resistance, the reference standards were culture-based drug susceptibility testing and line probe assays. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently extracted data using a standardized form, including data by smear and HIV status. We assessed risk of bias using QUADAS-2 and QUADAS-C. We performed meta-analyses comparing pooled sensitivities and specificities, separately for pulmonary tuberculosis detection and rifampicin resistance detection, and separately by reference standard. Most analyses used a bivariate random-effects model. For tuberculosis detection, we estimated accuracy in studies in participants who were not selected based on prior microscopy testing or history of tuberculosis. We performed subgroup analyses by smear status, HIV status, and history of tuberculosis. We summarized Xpert Ultra trace results. MAIN RESULTS: We identified nine studies (3500 participants): seven had unselected participants (2834 participants). All compared Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis detection; seven studies used a paired comparative accuracy design, and two studies used a randomized design. Five studies compared Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF for rifampicin resistance detection; four studies used a paired design, and one study used a randomized design. Of the nine included studies, seven (78%) were mainly or exclusively in high tuberculosis burden countries. For pulmonary tuberculosis detection, most studies had low risk of bias in all domains. Pulmonary tuberculosis detection Xpert Ultra pooled sensitivity and specificity (95% credible interval) against culture were 90.9% (86.2 to 94.7) and 95.6% (93.0 to 97.4) (7 studies, 2834 participants; high-certainty evidence) versus Xpert MTB/RIF pooled sensitivity and specificity of 84.7% (78.6 to 89.9) and 98.4% (97.0 to 99.3) (7 studies, 2835 participants; high-certainty evidence). The difference in the accuracy of Xpert Ultra minus Xpert MTB/RIF was estimated at 6.3% (0.1 to 12.8) for sensitivity and -2.7% (-5.7 to -0.5) for specificity. If the point estimates for Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF are applied to a hypothetical cohort of 1000 patients, where 10% of those presenting with symptoms have pulmonary tuberculosis, Xpert Ultra will miss 9 cases, and Xpert MTB/RIF will miss 15 cases. The number of people wrongly diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis would be 40 with Xpert Ultra and 14 with Xpert MTB/RIF. In smear-negative, culture-positive participants, pooled sensitivity was 77.5% (67.6 to 85.6) for Xpert Ultra versus 60.6% (48.4 to 71.7) for Xpert MTB/RIF; pooled specificity was 95.8% (92.9 to 97.7) for Xpert Ultra versus 98.8% (97.7 to 99.5) for Xpert MTB/RIF (6 studies). In people living with HIV, pooled sensitivity was 87.6% (75.4 to 94.1) for Xpert Ultra versus 74.9% (58.7 to 86.2) for Xpert MTB/RIF; pooled specificity was 92.8% (82.3 to 97.0) for Xpert Ultra versus 99.7% (98.6 to 100.0) for Xpert MTB/RIF (3 studies). In participants with a history of tuberculosis, pooled sensitivity was 84.2% (72.5 to 91.7) for Xpert Ultra versus 81.8% (68.7 to 90.0) for Xpert MTB/RIF; pooled specificity was 88.2% (70.5 to 96.6) for Xpert Ultra versus 97.4% (91.7 to 99.5) for Xpert MTB/RIF (4 studies). The proportion of Ultra trace-positive results ranged from 3.0% to 30.4%. Data were insufficient to estimate the accuracy of Xpert Ultra repeat testing in individuals with initial trace-positive results. Rifampicin resistance detection Pooled sensitivity and specificity were 94.9% (88.9 to 97.9) and 99.1% (97.7 to 99.8) (5 studies, 921 participants; high-certainty evidence) for Xpert Ultra versus 95.3% (90.0 to 98.1) and 98.8% (97.2 to 99.6) (5 studies, 930 participants; high-certainty evidence) for Xpert MTB/RIF. The difference in the accuracy of Xpert Ultra minus Xpert MTB/RIF was estimated at -0.3% (-6.9 to 5.7) for sensitivity and 0.3% (-1.2 to 2.0) for specificity. If the point estimates for Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF are applied to a hypothetical cohort of 1000 patients, where 10% of those presenting with symptoms have rifampicin resistance, Xpert Ultra will miss 5 cases, and Xpert MTB/RIF will miss 5 cases. The number of people wrongly diagnosed with rifampicin resistance would be 8 with Xpert Ultra and 11 with Xpert MTB/RIF. We identified a higher number of rifampicin resistance indeterminate results with Xpert Ultra, pooled proportion 7.6% (2.4 to 21.0) compared to Xpert MTB/RIF pooled proportion 0.8% (0.2 to 2.4). The estimated difference in the pooled proportion of indeterminate rifampicin resistance results for Xpert Ultra versus Xpert MTB/RIF was 6.7% (1.4 to 20.1). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Xpert Ultra has higher sensitivity and lower specificity than Xpert MTB/RIF for pulmonary tuberculosis, especially in smear-negative participants and people living with HIV. Xpert Ultra specificity was lower than that of Xpert MTB/RIF in participants with a history of tuberculosis. The sensitivity and specificity trade-off would be expected to vary by setting. For detection of rifampicin resistance, Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF had similar sensitivity and specificity. Ultra trace-positive results were common. Xpert Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF provide accurate results and can allow rapid initiation of treatment for rifampicin-resistant and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.

Chronic airflow obstruction in Tanzania - a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a global problem and available data from sub-Saharan Africa is very limited. METHODS: A cross-sectional facility-based pilot study among patients and visitors to an urban and a rural primary healthcare facility was conducted in coastal Tanzania. The primary outcome was the prevalence of chronic airflow obstruction. RESULTS: The final analysis included 598 participants with valid post-bronchodilator spirometry. Applying ATS/ERS spirometric criteria, chronic airflow obstruction was found in n = 24 (4%, CI95 2.7-5.9) participants and in n = 30 (5%, CI95 3.5-7.1) applying GOLD spirometric criteria. To analyse risk factors for chronic airflow obstruction including those not meeting ATS/ERS or GOLD criteria, FEF25-75 and FEV1% predicted was analysed in participants without evidence of pulmonary restriction among those exposed or not exposed to risk factors (n = 552). FEV1% predicted, but in particular FEF25-75 decreased with increasing symptom severity of shortness of breath as well as limitations in daily activities of participants. Cooking in general and cooking with biomass fuels vs. gas or electricity was associated with significantly lower FEF25-75, but not with lower FEV1% predicted. Participants having refrained from taking a job because of shortness of breath exhibited lower FEF25-75 (p < 0.01). A history of prior active TB was the most relevant risk factor associated with a decrease in FEF25-75 as well as FEV1% predicted. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated a relevant prevalence of chronic airflow obstruction in primary healthcare attendants and healthy visitors of a Tanzanian hospital. Using the baseline data provided, larger and population-based studies are needed to validate these findings. TB may have more impact on development of chronic airway obstruction than smoking in Africa. Due to the influence of age on the GOLD definition of chronic airflow obstruction, studies should report results using both ATS/ERS and GOLD definitions and include age-stratified analysis. Analysis of FEV1 and in particular FEF25-75 may yield additional information on risk factors and earlier stages of chronic airflow obstruction.

Bedaquiline-pretomanid-moxifloxacin-pyrazinamide for drug-sensitive and drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis treatment: a phase 2c, open-label, multicentre, partially randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The current tuberculosis (TB) drug development pipeline is being re-populated with candidates, including nitroimidazoles such as pretomanid, that exhibit a potential to shorten TB therapy by exerting a bactericidal effect on non-replicating bacilli. Based on results from preclinical and early clinical studies, a four-drug combination of bedaquiline, pretomanid, moxifloxacin, and pyrazinamide (BPaMZ) regimen was identified with treatment-shortening potential for both drug-susceptible (DS) and drug-resistant (DR) TB. This trial aimed to determine the safety and efficacy of BPaMZ. We compared 4 months of BPaMZ to the standard 6 months of isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol (HRZE) in DS-TB. 6 months of BPaMZ was assessed in DR-TB. METHODS: SimpliciTB was a partially randomised, phase 2c, open-label, clinical trial, recruiting participants at 26 sites in eight countries. Participants aged 18 years or older with pulmonary TB who were sputum smear positive for acid-fast bacilli were eligible for enrolment. Participants with DS-TB had Mycobacterium tuberculosis with sensitivity to rifampicin and isoniazid. Participants with DR-TB had M tuberculosis with resistance to rifampicin, isoniazid, or both. Participants with DS-TB were randomly allocated in a 1:1 ratio, stratified by HIV status and cavitation on chest radiograph, using balanced block randomisation with a fixed block size of four. The primary efficacy endpoint was time to sputum culture-negative status by 8 weeks; the key secondary endpoint was unfavourable outcome at week 52. A non-inferiority margin of 12% was chosen for the key secondary outcome. Safety and tolerability outcomes are presented as descriptive analyses. The efficacy analysis population contained patients who received at least one dose of medication and who had efficacy data available and had no major protocol violations. The safety population contained patients who received at least one dose of medication. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03338621) and is completed. FINDINGS: Between July 30, 2018, and March 2, 2020, 455 participants were enrolled and received at least one dose of study treatment. 324 (71%) participants were male and 131 (29%) participants were female. 303 participants with DS-TB were randomly assigned to 4 months of BPaMZ (n=150) or HRZE (n=153). In a modified intention-to-treat (mITT) analysis, by week 8, 122 (84%) of 145 and 70 (47%) of 148 participants were culture-negative on 4 months of BPaMZ and HRZE, respectively, with a hazard ratio for earlier negative status of 2·93 (95% CI 2·17-3·96; p<0·0001). Median time to negative culture (TTN) was 6 weeks (IQR 4-8) on 4 months of BPaMZ and 11 weeks (6-12) on HRZE. 86% of participants with DR-TB receiving 6 months of BPaMZ (n=152) reached culture-negative status by week 8, with a median TTN of 5 weeks (IQR 3-7). At week 52, 120 (83%) of 144, 134 (93%) of 144, and 111 (83%) of 133 on 4 months of BPaMZ, HRZE, and 6 months of BPaMZ had favourable outcomes, respectively. Despite bacteriological efficacy, 4 months of BPaMZ did not meet the non-inferiority margin for the key secondary endpoint in the pre-defined mITT population due to higher withdrawal rates for adverse hepatic events. Non-inferiority was demonstrated in the per-protocol population confirming the effect of withdrawals with 4 months of BPaMZ. At least one liver-related treatment-emergent adverse effect (TEAE) occurred among 45 (30%) participants on 4 months of BPaMZ, 38 (25%) on HRZE, and 33 (22%) on 6 months of BPaMZ. Serious liver-related TEAEs were reported by 20 participants overall; 11 (7%) among those on 4 months of BPaMZ, one (1%) on HRZE, and eight (5%) on 6 months of BPaMZ. The most common reasons for discontinuation of trial treatment were hepatotoxicity (ten participants [2%]), increased hepatic enzymes (nine participants [2%]), QTcF prolongation (three participants [1%]), and hypersensitivity (two participants [<1%]). INTERPRETATION: For DS-TB, BPaMZ successfully met the primary efficacy endpoint of sputum culture conversion. The regimen did not meet the key secondary efficacy endpoint due to adverse events resulting in treatment withdrawal. Our study demonstrated the potential for treatment-shortening efficacy of the BPaMZ regimen for DS-TB and DR-TB, providing clinical validation of a murine model widely used to identify such regimens. It also highlights that novel, treatment-shortening TB treatment regimens require an acceptable toxicity and tolerability profile with minimal monitoring in low-resource and high-burden settings. The increased risk of unpredictable severe hepatic adverse events with 4 months of BPaMZ would be a considerable obstacle to implementation of this regimen in settings with high burdens of TB with limited infrastructure for close surveillance of liver biochemistry. Future research should focus on improving the preclinical and early clinical detection and mitigation of safety issues together and further efforts to optimise shorter treatments. FUNDING: TB Alliance.

Presence of Teen Clubs and its Association with Clinic Attendance among Adolescents Living with HIV in Tanzania: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

Introduction: Adolescent's living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) are widely reported to have poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) due to stigma and fear of discrimination. A "Teen club" is an adolescent centered intervention designed to reduce social stigma and improve adherence and retention in HIV care. In this study we determined how the availability of teen clubs within routine HIV care and treatment facilities affects adolescents' clinic attendance. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study using secondary data from routine clinic records on adolescents (10-19 years) who started ART between 2010 and 2016, and had documented clinic visits between March 2017 and September 2017 at HIV care and treatment clinics (CTC) in northern and central Tanzania. Good clinic attendance was defined as attending at least four monthly clinic visits during the 7-month follow-up period. A Poisson model with robust standard errors was used to assess the relationship between presence of a teen club at health facilities and good clinic attendance adjusting for other factors including sex, age at ART initiation, duration on ART, WHO clinical stage and health facility level. Results: Of the 2839 adolescents, 73.1% had good clinic attendance. Good clinic attendance was independently associated with availability of a teen club at the health facility (aRR=1.16, 95%CI:1.09-1.21) and been on ART for >2 years (aRR=1.15, 95%C1.02-1.30). Adolescents aged 15-19 years during this study were less likely to have good clinic attendance (aRR= 0.93, 95%CI:0.88-0.98) than those aged <15 years. Sex and WHO clinical stage were not associated with good clinic attendance. Conclusion: Teen clubs improved visit adherence among adolescents in HIV care and treatment. Further qualitative research should be conducted to explore adolescents' perception of teen clubs as well as other enablers to clinic attendance.

Bedaquiline, moxifloxacin, pretomanid, and pyrazinamide during the first 8 weeks of treatment of patients with drug-susceptible or drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis: a multicentre, open-label, partially randomised, phase 2b trial.

BACKGROUND: New anti-tuberculosis regimens that are shorter, simpler, and less toxic than those that are currently available are needed as part of the global effort to address the tuberculosis epidemic. We aimed to investigate the bactericidal activity and safety profile of combinations of bedaquiline, pretomanid, moxifloxacin, and pyrazinamide in the first 8 weeks of treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. METHODS: In this multicentre, open-label, partially randomised, phase 2b trial, we prospectively recruited patients with drug-susceptible or rifampicin-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis from seven sites in South Africa, two in Tanzania, and one in Uganda. Patients aged 18 years or older with sputum smear grade 1+ or higher were eligible for enrolment, and a molecular assay (GeneXpert or MTBDRplus) was used to confirm the diagnosis of tuberculosis and to distinguish between drug-susceptible and rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis. Patients who were HIV positive with a baseline CD4 cell count of less than 100 cells per uL were excluded. Patients with drug-susceptible tuberculosis were randomly assigned (1:1:1) using numbered treatment packs with sequential allocation by the pharmacist to receive 56 days of treatment with standard tuberculosis therapy (oral isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol; HRZE), or pretomanid (oral 200 mg daily) and pyrazinamide (oral 1500 mg daily) with either oral bedaquiline 400 mg daily on days 1-14 then 200 mg three times per week (BloadPaZ) or oral bedaquiline 200 mg daily (B200PaZ). Patients with rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis received 56 days of the B200PaZ regimen plus moxifloxacin 400 mg daily (BPaMZ). All treatment groups were open label, and randomisation was not stratified. Patients, trial investigators and staff, pharmacists or dispensers, laboratory staff (with the exception of the mycobacteriology laboratory staff), sponsor staff, and applicable contract research organisations were not masked. The primary efficacy outcome was daily percentage change in time to sputum culture positivity (TTP) in liquid medium over days 0-56 in the drug-susceptible tuberculosis population, based on non-linear mixed-effects regression modelling of log10 (TTP) over time. The efficacy analysis population contained patients who received at least one dose of medication and who had efficacy data available and had no major protocol violations. The safety population contained patients who received at least one dose of medication. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02193776, and all patients have completed follow-up. FINDINGS: Between Oct 24, 2014, and Dec 15, 2015, we enrolled 180 patients with drug-susceptible tuberculosis (59 were randomly assigned to BloadPaZ, 60 to B200PaZ, and 61 to HRZE) and 60 patients with rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis. 57 patients in the BloadPaZ group, 56 in the B200PaZ group, and 59 in the HRZE group were included in the primary analysis. B200PaZ produced the highest daily percentage change in TTP (5·17% [95% Bayesian credibility interval 4·61-5·77]), followed by BloadPaZ (4·87% [4·31-5·47]) and HRZE group (4·04% [3·67-4·42]). The bactericidal activity in B200PaZ and BloadPaZ groups versus that in the HRZE group was significantly different. Higher proportions of patients in the BloadPaZ (six [10%] of 59) and B200PaZ (five [8%] of 60) groups discontinued the study drug than in the HRZE group (two [3%] of 61) because of adverse events. Liver enzyme elevations were the most common grade 3 or 4 adverse events and resulted in the withdrawal of ten patients (five [8%] in the BloadPaZ group, three [5%] in the B200PaZ group, and two [3%] in the HRZE group). Serious treatment-related adverse events affected two (3%) patients in the BloadPaZ group and one (2%) patient in the HRZE group. Seven (4%) patients with drug-susceptible tuberculosis died and four (7%) patients with rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis died. None of the deaths were considered to be related to treatment. INTERPRETATION: B200PaZ is a promising regimen to treat patients with drug-susceptible tuberculosis. The bactericidal activity of both these regimens suggests that they have the potential to shorten treatment, and the simplified dosing schedule of B200PaZ could improve treatment adherence in the field. However, these findings must be investigated further in a phase 3 trial assessing treatment outcomes. FUNDING: TB Alliance, UK Department for International Development, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, US Agency for International Development, Directorate General for International Cooperation of the Netherlands, Irish Aid, Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, and the Federal Ministry for Education and Research of Germany.

Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay for the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in children: a multicentre comparative accuracy study.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the diagnostic performance of the novel next-generation Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra (Xpert Ultra) in comparison to Xpert MTB/RIF (Xpert) assay for the detection of paediatric pulmonary tuberculosis in high burden settings. METHODS: From May 2011 to September 2012, children with suspected pulmonary tuberculosis were enrolled at two Tanzanian sites and sputum samples were examined using sputum smear, Xpert and culture. Xpert Ultra was tested between January and June 2017 using sputum pellets, which had been stored at -80°C. The diagnostic accuracy of Ultra versus Xpert was determined using well-defined case definitions as reference standard. RESULTS: In total, 215 children were included. The median age was 5.4 years, the HIV prevalence was 52% and 13% had culture-confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis. When only the first available sample of each patient was analysed, the sensitivity of Xpert Ultra was 64.3 % (95% CI: 44.1 to 81.4) while that of Xpert was 53.6% (95%CI: 33.9 to 72.5). The specificity of Xpert Ultra based on analysis of all available samples was 98.1% (95%CI: 93.4 to 99.7), that of Xpert was 100%. CONCLUSIONS: Xpert Ultra was found to have a higher sensitivity, but slightly reduced specificity compared to Xpert in detecting pulmonary tuberculosis in children.

Limited value of whole blood Xpert(®) MTB/RIF for diagnosing tuberculosis in children.

OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the ability of the Xpert(®) MTB/RIF assay to detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis in whole blood of children with tuberculosis in tuberculosis endemic settings with high rates of HIV infection. METHODS: From June 2011 to September 2012 we prospectively enrolled children with symptoms or signs suggestive of tuberculosis at three research centres in Tanzania and Uganda. After clinical assessment, respiratory specimens were collected for microscopy and culture, as well as whole blood for Xpert(®) MTB/RIF. Children were classified according to standardised case definitions. RESULTS: A total of 232 children were evaluated; 14 (6.0%) had culture-confirmed tuberculosis. The Xpert(®) MTB/RIF assay detected M. tuberculosis in 5/232 (2.2%) blood samples with 1 (0.4%) error reading and presumably 1 (0.4%) false-positive result. The sensitivity of the assay in children with culture-confirmed (1/14) versus no tuberculosis (1/117) was 7.1% (95% CI, 1.3-31.5). Three of the five Xpert(®) MTB/RIF positive patients had negative cultures, but were classified as probable tuberculosis cases. Assay sensitivity against a composite reference standard (culture-confirmed, highly probable or probable tuberculosis) was 5.4% (95% CI, 2.1-13.1). CONCLUSION: Whole blood Xpert(®) MTB/RIF demonstrated very poor sensitivity, although it may enhance the diagnostic yield in select cases, with culture-negative tuberculosis.

A Bundle of Services Increased Ascertainment of Tuberculosis among HIV-Infected Individuals Enrolled in a HIV Cohort in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa.

OBJECTIVES: To report on trends of tuberculosis ascertainment among HIV patients in a rural HIV cohort in Tanzania, and assessing the impact of a bundle of services implemented in December 2012, consisting of three components: (i) integration of HIV and tuberculosis services; (ii) GeneXpert for tuberculosis diagnosis; and (iii) electronic data collection. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study of patients enrolled in the Kilombero Ulanga Antiretroviral Cohort (KIULARCO), Tanzania.). METHODS: HIV patients without prior history of tuberculosis enrolled in the KIULARCO cohort between 2005 and 2013 were included.Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate rates and predictors of tuberculosis ascertainment. RESULTS: Of 7114 HIV positive patients enrolled, 5123 (72%) had no history of tuberculosis. Of these, 66% were female, median age was 38 years, median baseline CD4+ cell count was 243 cells/µl, and 43% had WHO clinical stage 3 or 4. During follow-up, 421 incident tuberculosis cases were notified with an estimated incidence of 3.6 per 100 person-years (p-y) [95% confidence interval (CI) 3.26-3.97]. The incidence rate varied over time and increased significantly from 2.96 to 43.98 cases per 100 p-y after the introduction of the bundle of services in December 2012. Four independent predictors of tuberculosis ascertainment were identified:poor clinical condition at baseline (Hazard Ratio (HR) 3.89, 95% CI 2.87-5.28), WHO clinical stage 3 or 4 (HR 2.48, 95% CI 1.88-3.26), being antiretroviralnaïve (HR 2.97, 95% CI 2.25-3.94), and registration in 2013 (HR 6.07, 95% CI 4.39-8.38). CONCLUSION: The integration of tuberculosis and HIV services together with comprehensive electronic data collection and use of GeneXpert increased dramatically the ascertainment of tuberculosis in this rural African HIV cohort.

Maturation and Mip-1ß Production of Cytomegalovirus-Specific T Cell Responses in Tanzanian Children, Adolescents and Adults: Impact by HIV and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Co-Infections.

It is well accepted that aging and HIV infection are associated with quantitative and functional changes of CMV-specific T cell responses. We studied here the expression of Mip-1ß and the T cell maturation marker CD27 within CMVpp65-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in relation to age, HIV and active Tuberculosis (TB) co-infection in a cohort of Tanzanian volunteers (≤ 16 years of age, n = 108 and ≥ 18 years, n = 79). Independent of HIV co-infection, IFNγ(+) CMVpp65-specific CD4(+) T cell frequencies increased with age. In adults, HIV co-infection further increased the frequencies of these cells. A high capacity for Mip-1ß production together with a CD27(low) phenotype was characteristic for these cells in children and adults. Interestingly, in addition to HIV co-infection active TB disease was linked to further down regulation of CD27 and increased capacity of Mip-1ß production in CMVpp65-specific CD4+ T cells. These phenotypic and functional changes of CMVpp65-specific CD4 T cells observed during HIV infection and active TB could be associated with increased CMV reactivation rates.

Assessment of the novel T-cell activation marker-tuberculosis assay for diagnosis of active tuberculosis in children: a prospective proof-of-concept study.

BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of paediatric tuberculosis is complicated by non-specific symptoms, difficult specimen collection, and the paucibacillary nature of the disease. We assessed the accuracy of a novel immunodiagnostic T-cell activation marker-tuberculosis (TAM-TB) assay in a proof-of-concept study to identify children with active tuberculosis. METHODS: Children with symptoms that suggested tuberculosis were prospectively recruited at the NIMR-Mbeya Medical Research Center in Mbeya, and the Ifakara Health Institute in Bagamoyo, Tanzania, between May 10, 2011, and Sept 4, 2012. Sputum and peripheral blood mononuclear cells were obtained for Mycobacterium tuberculosis culture and performance assessment of the TAM-TB assay. The children were assigned to standardised clinical case classifications based on microbiological and clinical findings. FINDINGS: Among 290 children screened, we selected a subgroup of 130 to ensure testing of at least 20 with culture-confirmed tuberculosis. 17 of 130 children were excluded because of inconclusive TAM-TB assay results. The TAM-TB assay enabled detection of 15 of 18 culture-confirmed cases (sensitivity 83·3%, 95% CI 58·6-96·4). Specificity was 96·8% (95% CI 89·0-99·6) in the cases that were classified as not tuberculosis (n=63), with little effect from latent tuberculosis infection. The TAM-TB assay identified five additional patients with highly probable or probable tuberculosis, in whom M tuberculosis was not isolated. The median time to diagnosis was 19·5 days (IQR 14-45) for culture. INTERPRETATION: The sputum-independent TAM-TB assay is a rapid and accurate blood test that has the potential to improve the diagnosis of active tuberculosis in children. FUNDING: European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, and Swiss National Science Foundation.