Mildly elevated serum total bilirubin levels are negatively associated with carotid atherosclerosis among elderly persons with type 2 diabetes.

Diabetes is strongly associated with several mechanisms of tissue damage such as oxidative stress. Serum bilirubin may have a beneficial role in preventing oxidative changes in cardiovascular disease (CVD). Limited information is available on whether serum bilirubin is an independent confounding factor for carotid atherosclerosis among elderly persons with type 2 diabetes. The study subjects were 169 men aged 79 ± 8 (mean ± SD) years and 205 women aged 81 ± 8 years that were enrolled consecutively from patients in the medical department. Carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and plaque were derived via B-mode ultrasonography. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that serum total bilirubin (ß = -0.160) was significantly associated with carotid IMT. Compared to subjects with a serum total bilirubin of tertile-1 (0.13-0.58 mg/dL), the multivariate-adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of carotid IMT ≥1.0 mm including plaque and carotid plaque was 0.46 (0.23-0.93) and 0.32 (0.17-0.60) in the Tertile-3 group (0.87-1.93 mg/dL), respectively. Next, data were further stratified by gender, age, smoking status, medication and prevalence of CVD. There were no significant differences in serum total bilirubin levels between selected subgroups. Our data demonstrated a negative association between serum total bilirubin and carotid atherosclerosis among elderly persons with type 2 diabetes.

Color strategies of camellias recruiting different pollinators.

Most ornithophilous plants have red flowers; this has been associated with 'the bee avoidance hypothesis', in which ornithophilous flowers may bear colors that are less conspicuous to bees than melittophilous flowers. In the genus Camellia, C. rusticana and C. japonica bear red flowers and yet recruit different pollinators; the former is entomophilous, while the latter is ornithophilous. C. japonica is considered to have been speciated from a common ancestor later than C. rusticana, accompanying a pollinator shift from insects to birds. Nevertheless, factors explaining the pollinator difference in camellias remain rudimentary. In this study, the color traits of the two camellias were investigated, to determine their color strategy to allure different pollinators. The behavior of bees towards the two camellias was examined by a two-choice assay. Flower color characteristics of the two camellias were analyzed with diffuse reflectance and fluorescence spectra. Based on the visual sensory system of bees and birds, the achromatic contrast, chromatic contrast, intensity, and spectral purity of the two species were evaluated, testing the bee avoidance hypothesis. Furthermore, the compounds responsible for the fluorescence, likely serving as a visual attractant, were identified by NMR and MS. Bees visited C. rusticana flowers almost exclusively and C. japonica hardly at all. Reflectance spectral data showed that C. rusticana petals are more conspicuous to bees than birds due to a UV-reflection secondary peak; and that C. japonica petals exhibited crucially low chromatic contrast against a leaf background to bees, suggesting them to be almost indistinguishable. On the other hand, C. japonica flowers appeared conspicuous to birds. The anthers of C. rusticana exhibited blue fluorescence derived from two anthranilates, while those of C. japonica did not. The two camellias offer different color strategies to be conspicuous to their respective pollinators, and C. japonica seemed to have evolved to avoid bees. Alterations in these color traits may have played a role in pollinator shift.

Rapid survey of de novo mutations in naturally growing tree species following the March 2011 disaster in Fukushima: The effect of low-dose-rate radiation.

The impact of low-dose-rate radiation on genetics is largely unknown, particularly in natural environments. The Fukushima Dai-ich Nuclear Power Plant disaster resulted in the creation of contaminated natural lands. In this study, de novo mutations (DNMs) in germ line cells were surveyed from double-digest RADseq fragments in Japanese cedar and flowering cherry trees exposed to ambient dose rates ranging from 0.08 to 6.86 µGy h-1. These two species are among the most widely cultivated Japanese gymnosperm and angiosperm trees for forestry and horticultural purpose, respectively. For Japanese flowering cherry, open crossings were performed to produce seedlings, and only two candidate DNMs were detected from uncontaminated area. For Japanese cedar, the haploid megagametophytes were used as next generation samples. The use of megagametophytes from open crossing for next generation mutation screening had many advantages such as reducing exposure to radiation in contaminated areas because artificial crossings are not needed and the ease of data analysis owing to the haploid nature of megagametophytes. A direct comparison of the nucleotide sequences of parents and megagametophytes revealed an average of 1.4 candidate DNMs per megagametophyte sample (range: 0-40) after filtering procedures were optimized based on the validation of DNMs via Sanger sequencing. There was no relationship between the observed mutations and the ambient dose rate in the growing area or the concentration of 137Cs in cedar branches. The present results also suggest that mutation rates differ among lineages and that the growing environment has a relatively large influence on these mutation rates. These results suggested there was no significant increase in the mutation rate of the germplasm of Japanese cedar and flowering cherry trees growing in the contaminated areas.

A single-nucleotide substitution of CjTKPR1 determines pollen production in the gymnosperm plant Cryptomeria japonica.

Pollinosis, also known as pollen allergy or hay fever, is a global problem caused by pollen produced by various plant species. The wind-pollinated Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) is the largest contributor to severe pollinosis in Japan, where increasing proportions of people have been affected in recent decades. The MALE STERILITY 4 (MS4) locus of Japanese cedar controls pollen production, and its homozygous mutants (ms4/ms4) show abnormal pollen development after the tetrad stage and produce no mature pollen. In this study, we narrowed down the MS4 locus by fine mapping in Japanese cedar and found TETRAKETIDE α-PYRONE REDUCTASE 1 (TKPR1) gene in this region. Transformation experiments using Arabidopsis thaliana showed that single-nucleotide substitution ("T" to "C" at 244-nt position) of CjTKPR1 determines pollen production. Broad conservation of TKPR1 beyond plant division could lead to the creation of pollen-free plants not only for Japanese cedar but also for broader plant species.

Mutational effects of chronic gamma radiation throughout the life cycle of Arabidopsis thaliana: Insight into radiosensitivity in the reproductive stage.

Organisms living on Earth have always been exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation, but following recent nuclear disasters, these background levels have often increased regionally due to the addition of man-made sources of radiation. To assess the mutational effects of ubiquitously present radiation on plants, we performed a whole-genome resequencing analysis of mutations induced by chronic irradiation throughout the life cycle of Arabidopsis thaliana grown under controlled conditions. We obtained resequencing data from 36 second generation post-mutagenesis (M2) progeny derived from 12 first generation (M1) lines grown under gamma-irradiation conditions, ranging from 0.0 to 2.0 Gray per day (Gy/day), to identify de novo mutations, including single base substitutions (SBSs) and small insertions/deletions (INDELs). The relationship between de novo mutation frequency and radiation dose rate from 0.0 to 2.0 Gy/day was assessed by statistical modeling. The increase in de novo mutations in response to irradiation dose fit the negative binomial model, which accounted for the high variability of mutation frequency observed. Among the different types of mutations, SBSs were more prevalent than INDELs, and deletions were more frequent than insertions. Furthermore, we observed that the mutational effects of chronic radiation were greater during the reproductive stage. These results will provide valuable insights into practical strategies for analyzing mutational effects in wild plants growing in environments with various mutagens.

[Retrospective cohort study of risk factors for adverse effects of antituberculous therapy].

PURPOSE: This study was designed to identify clinical risk factors for adverse effects of antituberculous therapy and their frequency. METHODS: A retrospective study of cohorts was undertaken from April 2004 to March 2007. We analyzed the clinical records of 861 patients with tuberculosis treated at Higashi Nagoya Hospital. The factors that were associated with adverse effects in univariate analysis (P < 0.1) were then subjected to multivariate Cox regression analysis for calculation of the hazard ratios (HRs) and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). RESULTS: Suspension of antituberculous therapy was necessary because of adverse effects in 247 patients (28.7%). The chief adverse effects leading to discontinuation of treatment were liver dysfunction (12.9%), skin rash (6.7%), and gastrointestinal dysfunction (4.1%), while other effects accounted for less than 5.0% of discontinuations. Risk factors for liver dysfunction according to Cox proportional hazards analysis were HCV infection (HR 2.86; 95% CI 1.59 to 5.15; p < 0.001); hepatocellular damage at admission (HR 2.06; 95% CI 1.25 to 3.39; p = 0.005) and high-dose isoniazid (increase per mg/kg: HR 1.36; 95% CI 1.18 to 1.56; p < 0.001). Collagen disease was a risk factor for skin rash (HR 6.06; 95% CI 2.81 to 13.05; p < 0.001). Risk factors for gastrointestinal dysfunction were a high body mass index (increase per kg/m2: HR 0.80; 95% CI 0.71 to 0.91; p < 0.001) and advanced age (increase per year: HR 1.03; 95% CI 1.01 to 1.06; p 0.018). CONCLUSION: Adverse effects may lead to substantial additional medical costs because of the need for more medications and tests, as well as a longer hospital stay. Identification of the risk factors for adverse effects of antituberculous therapy should help to minimize such events in tuberculosis patients.

Marker-Assisted Selection for Pollen-Free Somatic Plants of Sugi (Japanese Cedar, Cryptomeria japonica): A Simple and Effective Methodology for Selecting Male-Sterile Mutants With ms1-1 and ms1-2.

Pollen allergy caused by sugi (Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica) is a serious problem in Japan. One of the measures against pollinosis is the use of male-sterile plants (MSPs; pollen-free plants). In this context, the development of a novel technique for the efficient production of sugi MSPs, which combines marker-assisted selection (MAS) with somatic embryogenesis (SE), was recently reported by our research group. To improve the efficiency of MSP production, in this paper we report improved MAS for male-sterile individuals from embryogenic cells, cotyledonary embryos, and somatic plants of sugi using a newly developed marker in the form of the causative mutation of MS1 itself, selecting individuals with ms1-1 and ms1-2 male-sterile mutations. We also describe simplified methods for extracting DNA from different plant materials and for MAS using LAMP diagnostics. Finally, we show that MAS can be efficiently performed using the one-step indel genotyping (ING) marker developed in this study and using InstaGene for DNA extraction. The combination of SE and 100% accurate marker selection during the embryogenic cell stage enables the mass production of MS1 male-sterile sugi seedlings.

Identification and genetic diversity analysis of a male-sterile gene (MS1) in Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don).

Identifying causative genes for a target trait in conifer reproduction is challenging for species lacking whole-genome sequences. In this study, we searched for the male-sterility gene (MS1) in Cryptomeria japonica, aiming to promote marker-assisted selection (MAS) of male-sterile C. japonica to reduce the pollinosis caused by pollen dispersal from artificial C. japonica forests in Japan. We searched for mRNA sequences expressed in male strobili and found the gene CJt020762, coding for a lipid transfer protein containing a 4-bp deletion specific to male-sterile individuals. We also found a 30-bp deletion by sequencing the entire gene of another individual with the ms1. All nine breeding materials with the allele ms1 had either a 4-bp or 30-bp deletion in gene CJt020762, both of which are expected to result in faulty gene transcription and function. Furthermore, the 30-bp deletion was detected from three of five individuals in the Ishinomaki natural forest. From our findings, CJt020762 was considered to be the causative gene of MS1. Thus, by performing MAS using two deletion mutations as a DNA marker, it will be possible to find novel breeding materials of C. japonica with the allele ms1 adapted to the unique environment of each region of the Japanese archipelago.

Development of diagnostic PCR and LAMP markers for MALE STERILITY 1 (MS1) in Cryptomeria japonica D. Don.

OBJECTIVE: Due to the allergic nature of the pollen of Cryptomeria japonica, the most important Japanese forestry conifer, a pollen-free cultivar is preferred. Mutant trees detected in nature have been used to produce a pollen-free cultivar. In order to reduce the time and cost needed for production and breeding, we aimed to develop simple diagnostic molecular markers for mutant alleles of the causative gene MALE STERILITY 1 (MS1) in C. japonica to rapidly identify pollen-free mutants. RESULTS: We developed PCR and LAMP markers to detect mutant alleles and to present experimental options depending on available laboratory equipment. LAMP markers were developed for field stations, where PCR machines are unavailable. The LAMP method only needs heat-blocks or a water bath to perform the isothermal amplification and assay results can be read by the naked eye. Because the causative mutations were deletions, we developed two kinds of PCR markers, amplified length polymorphism (ALP) and allele specific PCR (ASP) markers. These assays can be visualized using capillary or agarose gel electrophoresis.

Pollen donor composition during the early phases of reproduction revealed by DNA genotyping of pollen grains and seeds of Castanea crenata.

In plants, pollen donor composition can differ during the early phases of reproduction through various selection mechanisms favouring self, related or nonrelated pollen donors, but such differences have not been examined under natural conditions because paternity is difficult to analyse in a natural setting. Here, we performed paternity analyses based on microsatellite genotyping of individual pollen grains deposited on female flowers (n = 773) and seeds (n = 304) to evaluate pollen donor composition from three individuals of the insect-pollinated monoecious tree Castanea crenata in a natural forest. Spatial genetic structure was also investigated. A mean self-pollen rate of 90.2% was observed at the pollination stage, but a low selfing rate of 0.3% was observed at the seed stage. In outcross events, however, pairwise distance and relatedness between maternal and paternal parents were not different between pollination and seed stages. We also observed significant positive relatedness, based on clear fine-scale genetic structure of individual trees within 80 m of one another, and 71% of seeds were derived using pollen grains of related trees within 80 m. The results suggest that the mechanism of self-incompatibility strongly avoids self-pollen before seed production. However, the avoidance of biparental inbreeding was not obvious between pollination and seed stages.

Fine mapping of the male-sterile genes (MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4) and development of SNP markers for marker-assisted selection in Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don).

Pollinosis caused by Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) is a widespread social problem in Japan. To date, 23 male-sterile C. japonica trees have been selected in Japan to address pollinosis, from which four male-sterility loci (MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4) have been identified from test crossing results. For efficient breeding of male-sterile C. japonica trees, more male-sterile individuals and individuals heterozygous for male-sterile genes are required. Therefore, we aimed to develop DNA markers for marker-assisted selection of four types of male-sterile genes from populations without a family structure. First, for four families exhibiting segregation of each male-sterile locus (MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4), genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism and insertion/deletion (indel) genotyping was performed using the Axiom myDesign Targeted Genotyping Array method. Four high-density linkage maps for mapping the MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4 families were constructed, which included 4923, 1722, 1896, and 2247 markers, respectively. In these maps, 15, 4, 2, and 2 markers were located 0.0, 3.3, 1.1, and 0.0 cM from the MS1, MS2, MS3, and MS4 loci, respectively. Second, for the markers located 0.0 cM from a male-sterile locus (i.e., MS1 and MS4), to clarify the most tightly linked markers, we calculated the prediction rate of male-sterile gene genotypes from marker genotypes for 78 trees. The markers with the highest prediction rates were AX-174127446 (0.95) for MS1 and AX-174121522 (1.00) for MS4. The AX-174121522 marker was considered to be suitable for selecting trees homozygous or heterozygous for the MS4 gene from plus-trees without a pollination test, which requires a large amount of time and effort. The nearest markers to the male-sterile loci found in this study may facilitate the isolation of male-sterile genes in C. japonica via combination with the draft genomic sequence that is currently being collated.

Variation in pollen-donor composition among pollinators in an entomophilous tree species, Castanea crenata, revealed by single-pollen genotyping.

BACKGROUND: In plants, reproductive success is largely determined by the composition of pollen (i.e., self-pollen and outcross-pollen from near and distant pollen-donors) transported as a result of pollinator foraging behavior (e.g., pollen carryover). However, little evidence is available on how and to what extent the pollen carryover affects the pollen-donor composition and on which insect taxa are effective outcross-pollen transporters under field conditions. In this study, we explored roles of foraging behavior of insect pollinators on pollen-donor composition and subsequent reproductive success in a woody plant. METHODS: We performed paternity analyses based on microsatellite genotyping of individual pollen grains found on diurnal pollinators (i.e., bumblebee, small bee, fly, small beetle, and honeybee) visiting Castanea crenata trees. RESULTS: The outcross-pollen rate was highest in bumblebees (66%), followed by small bees (35%), flies (31%), and small beetles (18%). The effective number of pollen donors, representing pollen carryover, was greater in bumblebees (9.71) than in flies (3.40), small bees (3.32), and small beetles (3.06). The high percentages of pollen from outside the plot on bumblebees (65.4%) and flies (71.2%) compared to small bees (35.3%) and small beetles (13.5%) demonstrated their longer pollen dispersal distances. CONCLUSIONS: All of the diurnal insects carried outcross-pollen grains for long distances via pollen carryover. This fact suggests that a wide range of insect taxa are potential outcross-pollen transporters for the self-incompatible C. crenata.

Isolation and characterization of 22 EST-SSR markers for the genus Thujopsis (Cupressaceae).

UNLABELLED: • PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Expressed sequence tag-simple sequence repeat (EST-SSR) markers were developed from Thujopsis dolabrata var. hondae (Cupressaceae) using Illumina sequencing to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of the genus Thujopsis. • METHODS AND RESULTS: Twenty-two primer pairs were developed from ESTs of T. dolabrata var. hondae. The primers amplified di- and trinucleotide repeat-containing sequences. Polymorphisms were assessed in 81 individuals from two T. dolabrata var. hondae populations and one T. dolabrata population. The number of alleles ranged from one to 17 per locus. The observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.000 to 1.000 and from 0.000 to 0.926, respectively. • CONCLUSIONS: These new EST-SSR markers will be useful in analyses of the genetic diversity and population structure of the genus Thujopsis.

Association between serum bilirubin and estimated glomerular filtration rate among elderly persons.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health problem. However, few studies have examined the significance of serum bilirubin as a risk factor for the development of CKD in the general Japanese population. The subjects comprised 413 men (mean age: 79±9 years; (range, 60-100 years) and 637 women (mean age: 81±8 years; range, 60-106 years) who visited the medical department of Seiyo Municipal Nomura Hospital. We examined the relationship between increased serum bilirubin and renal function that was evaluated by estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using CKD-EPI equations modified by a Japanese coefficient. Stepwise multiple regression analysis with eGFR as the objective variable, and adjusted risk factors as the explanatory variables, showed that serum bilirubin (ß = 0.11, P<0.001) was significantly and independently associated with eGFR, in addition to gender, age, prevalence of antihypertensive medication, triglycerides, prevalence of antidiabetic medication, and serum uric acid. Compared with stages 1+2 (eGFR ≥60.0 ml/min/1.73 m2), mean multivariate-adjusted odds ratio {95% (confidence interval (CI)} for hypobilirubinemia (first quartile, <0.52 mg/dL) was 3.52 (range: 1.88-6.59). Next, to control potential confounding factors, data were further stratified by gender, age, medication (antihypertensive, antidyslipidemic, and antidiabetic agents), and prevalence of cardiovascular disease. The standardized coefficient for eGFR was significant in both groups, and there was no interaction between the groups. Our data demonstrated an independent positive association between serum bilirubin and eGFR in both genders. Low serum bilirubin level would be useful as a potential risk factor for renal function.

Mildly elevated serum bilirubin levels are negatively associated with carotid atherosclerosis among elderly persons.

Serum bilirubin may have a beneficial role in preventing oxidative changes in atherosclerosis. Limited information is available on whether serum total bilirubin is an independent confounding factor for carotid atherosclerosis {for example, intima-media thickness (IMT), plaque} measured noninvasively by B-mode ultrasonography only among elderly persons. The study subjects were 325 men aged 79 ± 8 (mean ± standard deviation) years and 509 women aged 81 ± 8 years that were enrolled consecutively from patients aged ≥ 60 years in the medical department. Carotid IMT and plaque were derived via B-mode ultrasonography. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that in men age (ß = 0.199, p = 0.002), smoking status (ß = 0.154, p = 0.006), GGT (ß = -0.139, p = 0.039), and GGT (ß = -0.133, p = 0.022) were significantly and independently associated with carotid IMT, and in women age (ß = 0.186, p < 0.001), systolic blood pressure (ß = 0.104, p = 0.046), diastolic blood pressure (ß = -0.148, p = 0.004), prevalence of antihypertensive medication (ß = 0.126, p = 0.004), fasting plasma glucose (ß = 0.135, p = 0.003), GGT (ß = -0.104, p = 0.032), estimated glomerular filtration rate, serum bilirubin (ß = -0.119, p = 0.006), and prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) (ß = 0.103, p = 0.017) were also independently associated with carotid IMT. The odds ratios (ORs) {95% confidence interval (CI)} of increasing serum bilirubin category were negatively associated with carotid IMT ≥ 1.0 mm and plaque in both genders. Compared to subjects with a serum bilirubin of Quartile-1, the multivariate-OR (95% CI) of carotid plaque was 0.25 (0.11-0.57) in the Quartile-4 male group, and 0.41 (0.21-0.78) in the Quartile-2 female group, 0.51 (0.26-0.98) in the Quartile-3 female group, and 0.46 (0.24-0.89) in the Quartile-4 female group. Our data demonstrated an independently negative association between serum bilirubin and carotid atherosclerosis in both genders.

[Research on the forecasting of trends in demand for pharmacists 2011-2035].

The first crop of pharmacists graduating from 6-year programs in pharmaceutical l education arrived in April 2012, and it will be important to incorporate new factors when predicting future trends in supply and demand for pharmacists. If we project supply given an exam pass rate of 75%, the supply of pharmacists will increase for the next 10 years or so if the number of exam takers is about 10000, and no decrease in the total number of pharmacists is expected until 2035. At pharmacies, a high degree of demand for the services of pharmacists can be expected to result from increases in the number of elderly patients and the number of patients receiving prescriptions, together with expanded accommodation of home health care, if the proportion of prescriptions that are actually filled up to 70%. At hospitals, demand has been projected to increase over the short term, owing to such factors as the trend toward having a resident pharmacist in each ward, advances in team medicine, and the spread of outpatient chemotherapy. Given the rising enrollment quotas for schools of pharmacy, and if the current supply and demand for pharmacists are maintained, we cannot rule out the possibility that pharmacists will come to be in excess supply within a 10-year horizon if the number of unemployed continues to decrease and the employment rate continues to improve along with changes in economic conditions and the consciousness of graduates of the 6-year programs.

Draft sequences of the radish (Raphanus sativus L.) genome.

Radish (Raphanus sativus L., n = 9) is one of the major vegetables in Asia. Since the genomes of Brassica and related species including radish underwent genome rearrangement, it is quite difficult to perform functional analysis based on the reported genomic sequence of Brassica rapa. Therefore, we performed genome sequencing of radish. Short reads of genomic sequences of 191.1 Gb were obtained by next-generation sequencing (NGS) for a radish inbred line, and 76,592 scaffolds of ≥ 300 bp were constructed along with the bacterial artificial chromosome-end sequences. Finally, the whole draft genomic sequence of 402 Mb spanning 75.9% of the estimated genomic size and containing 61,572 predicted genes was obtained. Subsequently, 221 single nucleotide polymorphism markers and 768 PCR-RFLP markers were used together with the 746 markers produced in our previous study for the construction of a linkage map. The map was combined further with another radish linkage map constructed mainly with expressed sequence tag-simple sequence repeat markers into a high-density integrated map of 1,166 cM with 2,553 DNA markers. A total of 1,345 scaffolds were assigned to the linkage map, spanning 116.0 Mb. Bulked PCR products amplified by 2,880 primer pairs were sequenced by NGS, and SNPs in eight inbred lines were identified.

Extensive chromosome homoeology among Brassiceae species were revealed by comparative genetic mapping with high-density EST-based SNP markers in radish (Raphanus sativus L.).

A linkage map of expressed sequence tag (EST)-based markers in radish (Raphanus sativus L.) was constructed using a low-cost and high-efficiency single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping method named multiplex polymerase chain reaction-mixed probe dot-blot analysis developed in this study. Seven hundred and forty-six SNP markers derived from EST sequences of R. sativus were assigned to nine linkage groups with a total length of 806.7 cM. By BLASTN, 726 markers were found to have homologous genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, and 72 syntenic regions, which have great potential for utilizing genomic information of the model species A. thaliana in basic and applied genetics of R. sativus, were identified. By construction and analysis of the genome structures of R. sativus based on the 24 genomic blocks within the Brassicaceae ancestral karyotype, 23 of the 24 genomic blocks were detected in the genome of R. sativus, and half of them were found to be triplicated. Comparison of the genome structure of R. sativus with those of the A, B, and C genomes of Brassica species and that of Sinapis alba L. revealed extensive chromosome homoeology among Brassiceae species, which would facilitate transfer of the genomic information from one Brassiceae species to another.