Sleep and the athlete: narrative review and 2021 expert consensus recommendations.

Elite athletes are particularly susceptible to sleep inadequacies, characterised by habitual short sleep (<7 hours/night) and poor sleep quality (eg, sleep fragmentation). Athletic performance is reduced by a night or more without sleep, but the influence on performance of partial sleep restriction over 1-3 nights, a more real-world scenario, remains unclear. Studies investigating sleep in athletes often suffer from inadequate experimental control, a lack of females and questions concerning the validity of the chosen sleep assessment tools. Research only scratches the surface on how sleep influences athlete health. Studies in the wider population show that habitually sleeping <7 hours/night increases susceptibility to respiratory infection. Fortunately, much is known about the salient risk factors for sleep inadequacy in athletes, enabling targeted interventions. For example, athlete sleep is influenced by sport-specific factors (relating to training, travel and competition) and non-sport factors (eg, female gender, stress and anxiety). This expert consensus culminates with a sleep toolbox for practitioners (eg, covering sleep education and screening) to mitigate these risk factors and optimise athlete sleep. A one-size-fits-all approach to athlete sleep recommendations (eg, 7-9 hours/night) is unlikely ideal for health and performance. We recommend an individualised approach that should consider the athlete's perceived sleep needs. Research is needed into the benefits of napping and sleep extension (eg, banking sleep).

Validity and Reliability of the Stages Cycling Power Meter.

Granier, C, Hausswirth, C, Dorel, S, and Le Meur, Y. Validity and reliability of the stages cycling power meter. J Strength Cond Res 34(12): 3554-3559, 2020-This study aimed to determine the validity and the reliability of the Stages power meter crank system (Boulder, United States) during several laboratory cycling tasks. Eleven trained subjects completed laboratory cycling trials on an indoor cycle fitted with SRM Professional and Stages systems. The trials consisted of an incremental test at 100 W, 200 W, 300 W, 400 W, and four 7-s sprints. The level of pedaling asymmetry was determined for each cycling intensity during a similar protocol completed on a Lode Excalibur Sport ergometer. The reliability of Stages and SRM power meters was compared by repeating the incremental test during a test-retest protocol on a Cyclus 2 ergometer. Over power ranges of 100-1,250 W, the Stages system produced trivial to small differences compared with the SRM (standardized typical error values of 0.06, 0.24, and 0.08 for the incremental, sprint, and combined trials, respectively). A large correlation was reported between the difference in power output (PO) between the 2 systems and the level of pedaling asymmetry (r = 0.58, p < 0.001). Recalculating PO of the Stages system according to the level of pedaling asymmetry provided only marginal improvements in PO measures. The reliability of the Stages power meter at the submaximal intensities was similar to the SRM Professional model (coefficient of variation: 2.1 and 1.3% for Stages and SRM, respectively). The Stages system is a suitable device for PO measurements, except when a typical error of measurement <3.0% over power ranges of 100-1,250 W is expected.

Effects of Postexercise Protein Intake on Muscle Mass and Strength During Resistance Training: Is There an Optimal Ratio Between Fast and Slow Proteins?

While effects of the two classes of proteins found in milk (i.e., soluble proteins, including whey, and casein) on muscle protein synthesis have been well investigated after a single bout of resistance exercise (RE), the combined effects of these two proteins on the muscle responses to resistance training (RT) have not yet been investigated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the effects of protein supplementation varying by the ratio between milk soluble proteins (fast-digested protein) and casein (slow-digested protein) on the muscle to a 9-week RT program. In a double-blind protocol, 31 resistance-trained men, were assigned to 3 groups receiving a drink containing 20g of protein comprising either 100% of fast protein (FP(100), n = 10), 50% of fast and 50% of slow proteins (FP(50), n = 11) or 20% of fast protein and 80% of casein (FP(20), n = 10) at the end of training bouts. Body composition (DXA), and maximal strength in dynamic and isometric were analyzed before and after RT. Moreover, blood plasma aminoacidemia kinetic after RE was measured. The results showed a higher leucine bioavailability after ingestion of FP(100) and FP(50) drinks, when compared with FP(20) (p< .05). However, the RT-induced changes in lean body mass (p < .01), dynamic (p < .01), and isometric muscle strength (p < .05) increased similarly in all experimental groups. To conclude, compared with the FP(20) group, the higher rise in plasma amino acids following the ingestion of FP(100) and FP(50) did not lead to higher muscle long-term adaptations.

The impact of sleeping with reduced glycogen stores on immunity and sleep in triathletes.

PURPOSE: We investigated the effects of a 3-week dietary periodization on immunity and sleep in triathletes. METHODS: 21 triathletes were divided into two groups with different nutritional guidelines during a 3-week endurance training program including nine twice a day sessions with lowered (SL group) or maintained (CON group) glycogen availability during the overnight recovery period. In addition to performance tests, sleep was monitored every night. Systemic and mucosal immune parameters as well as the incidence of URTI were monitored every week of the training/nutrition protocol. Two-ways ANOVA and effect sizes were used to examine differences in dependent variables between groups at each time point. RESULTS: The SL group significantly improved 10 km running performance (-1 min 13 s, P < 0.01, d = 0.38), whereas no improvement was recorded in the CON group (-2 s, NS). No significant changes in white blood cells counts, plasma cortisol and IL-6 were recorded over the protocol in both groups. The vitamin D status decreased in similar proportions between groups, whereas salivary IgA decreased in the SL group only (P < 0.05, d = 0.23). The incidence of URTI was not altered in both groups. All participants in both groups went to bed earlier during the training program (SL -20 min, CON -27 min, P < 0.05, d = 0.28). In the SL group, only sleep efficiency slightly decreased by 1.1 % (P < 0.05, d = 0.25) and the fragmentation index tended to increase at the end of the protocol (P = 0.06). CONCLUSION: Sleeping and training the next morning regularly with reduced glycogen availability has minimal effects on selected markers of immunity, the incidence of URTI and sleeping patterns in trained athletes.

Identifying Optimal Overload and Taper in Elite Swimmers over Time.

The aim of this exploratory study was to identify the most influential training designs during the final six weeks of training (F6T) before a major swimming event, taking into account athletes' evolution over several seasons. Fifteen female and 17 male elite swimmers were followed for one to nine F6T periods. The F6T was divided into two sub-periods of a three-week overload period (OP) and a three-week taper period (TP). The final time trial performance was recorded for each swimmer in his or her specialty at the end of both OP and TP. The change in performances (ΔP) between OP and TP was recorded. Training variables were derived from the weekly training volume at several intensity levels as a percentage of the individual maximal volume measured at each intensity level, and the individual total training load (TTL) was considered to be the mean of the loads at these seven intensity levels. Also, training patterns were identified from TTL in the three weeks of both OP and TP by cluster analysis. Mixed-model was used to analyse the longitudinal data. The training pattern during OP that was associated with the greatest improvement in performance was a training load peak followed by a linear slow decay (84 ± 17, 81 ± 22, and 80 ± 19 % of the maximal training load measured throughout the F6T period for each subject, Mean ± SD) (p < 0.05). During TP, a training load peak in the 1(st) week associated with a slow decay design (57 ± 26, 45 ± 24 and 38 ± 14%) led to higher ΔP (p < 0.05). From the 1(st) to 3(rd) season, the best results were characterized by maintenance of a medium training load from OP to TP. Progressively from the 4(th) season, high training loads during OP followed by a sharp decrease during TP were associated with higher ΔP. Key PointsDuring the overload training period, a medium training load peak in the first week followed by an exponential slow decay training load design was linked to highest performance improvement.During the taper period, a training load peak in the first week associated with a slow decay design led to higher performances.Over the course of the swimmers' athletic careers, better performances were obtained with an increase in training load during the overload period followed by a sharper decrease in the taper period.Training loads schedules during the final six weeks of training before a major swimming event and changes over time could be prescribed on the basis of the model results.

Positive Impacts of a Four-Week Neuro-Meditation Program on Cognitive Function in Post-Acute Sequelae of COVID-19 Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Study objective: Long COVID patients can experience high levels of impairment in their cognitive function and mental health. Using a parallel randomized control trial, we evaluated the effectiveness of a neuro-meditation program to reduce cognitive impairment in patients with long COVID. Methods: A total of 34 patients with long COVID were randomized to an intervention group (G-Int; n = 17) or a control group (G-Con; n = 17) and 15 healthy participants were constitutive of a normative group (G-Nor). The intervention consisted of ten 30-min sessions of Rebalance® over a period of five weeks. Each session included sound therapy and coach-guided meditation associated with light stimulations (i.e., chromotherapy). Primary outcomes were performance on five computerized cognitive tasks (choice response time, pattern comparison, Simon, pursuit rotor task, and Corsi block-tapping task), mental and physical fatigue (Chalder fatigue scale), perceived stress (perceived stress scale) and mood (profiles of mood states). Secondary outcomes were anxiety and depressive symptoms (hospital anxiety and depression scale), muscular pain, joint pain, and headaches using visual analog scales (VAS) as well as sleep quality (Spiegel sleep questionnaire). Assessments were conducted at baseline and at 1−2 and 7−8 days of follow-up. Results: Compared to healthy subjects, long COVID patients showed significant differences at baseline on all the self-report questionnaires, and a Rebalance® program improved all the subjective reports, as well as cognitive performances, especially on reaction time-based tasks. In particular, only the G-Int group revealed shortened reaction times in the choice reaction time (RTbaseline = 593 ± 121 ms vs. RTpost2 = 521 ± 86 ms, p < 0.001), Simon (RTbaseline = 539 ± 123 ms vs. RTpost2 = 494 ± 134 ms, p < 0.01), and pattern comparison tasks (RTbaseline = 1244 ± 315 ms vs. RTpost2 = 1079 ± 213 ms, p < 0.001). Conclusions) Initial evidence suggests that neuro-meditation reduces cognitive impairment and improves physical and mental fatigue, muscle and joint pain, symptoms of depression and anxiety, mood disturbances as well as sleep quality. The Rebalance® program hence constitutes a promising non-pharmacological intervention for the treatment of long-term psychological/cognitive outcomes of COVID-19.

Strength training improves cycling efficiency in master endurance athletes.

The purpose of this study was to test the effect of a 3-week strength training program of knee extensor muscles on cycling delta efficiency in master endurance athletes. Nine master (age 51.5 ± 5.5 years) and 8 young (age 25.6 ± 5.9 years) endurance athletes with similar training levels participated in this study. During three consecutive weeks, all the subjects were engaged in a strength training program of the knee extensor muscles. Every week, they performed three training sessions consist of 10 × 10 knee extensions at 70% of maximal repetition with 3 min rest between in a leg extension apparatus. Maximal voluntary contraction torque (MVC torque) and force endurance (End) were assessed before, after every completed week of training, and after the program. Delta efficiency (DE) in cycling was evaluated before and after the training period. Before the training period, MVC torque, End, and DE in cycling were significantly lower in masters than in young. The strength training induced a significant improvement in MVC torque in all the subjects, more pronounced in masters (+17.8% in masters vs. +5.9% in young, P < 0.05). DE in cycling also significantly increased after training in masters, whereas it was only a trend in young. A significant correlation (r = 0.79, P < 0.01) was observed between MVC torque and DE in cycling in masters. The addition of a strength training program for the knee extensor muscles to endurance-only training induced a significant improvement in strength and cycling efficiency in master athletes. This enhancement in muscle performance alleviated all the age-related differences in strength and efficiency.

Physiological demand and pacing strategy during the new combined event in elite pentathletes.

To evaluate the physiological demands and effects of different pacing strategies on performance during the new combined event (CE) of the modern pentathlon (consisting of three pistol shooting sessions interspersed by three 1-km running legs). Nine elite pentathletes realised five tests: a free-paced CE during an international competition; an incremental running test to determine [Formula: see text] and its related velocity ([Formula: see text]) and three experimental time-trial CE, where the pacing strategy was manipulated (CE(ref), CE(100%), CE(105%)). CE(ref) reproduced the international competition strategy with a 170-m fast running start within the first 2 km. CE(100%) and CE(105%) imposed a constant strategy over km-1 and km-2 with a velocity of 100 and 105% of the mean speed adopted over the same sections during the international competition, respectively. Km-3 was always self-paced. The subjects ran CE(ref) at 99 ± 4% of [Formula: see text] and reached 100 ± 5, 100 ± 7, 99 ± 8% of [Formula: see text] at the end of kilometres 1, 2 and 3, respectively ([Formula: see text]: 72 ± 6 mL O(2) min(-1) kg(-1)), with a peak blood lactate concentration of 13.6 ± 1.5 mmol L(-1). No significant differences in overall performance were found between the pacing conditions (753 ± 30, 770 ± 39, 768 ± 27 s for CE(ref), CE(100%) and CE(105%), respectively, p = 0.63), but all of the shooting performance parameters were only stable in CE(ref). Completion of CE by elite pentathletes elicits a maximal aerobic contribution coupled with a high glycolytic supply. Manipulating the mean running speed over km-1 and km-2 had strong influence on the overall pacing strategy and induced minor differences in shooting performance, but it did not affect overall performance.

Age-related changes in cardio-respiratory responses and muscular performance following an Olympic triathlon in well-trained triathletes.

The aim of the present study was to compare the maximal isometric torque and cardio-respiratory parameters in well-trained young and master triathletes prior to and following an Olympic distance triathlon. One day before and 24 h following the event, participants performed three maximum voluntary isometric knee extensions and flexions and an incremental running test on a treadmill to determine the maximal isometric torque, maximal oxygen uptake VO(2max), speed at VO(2max) (vVO(2)max), speed at ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2) and submaximal running economy. Prior to the event VO(2max), vVO(2)max, speed at ventilatory thresholds and running economy were significantly lower in master athletes, but maximal voluntary torque was similar between the groups. 24 h following the race, a similar significant decrease in VO(2max) (-3.1% in masters, and -6.2% in young, p < 0.05), and vVO(2)max (-9.5% in masters, and -5.6% in young, p < 0.05) was observed in both the groups. The speed at VT2 significantly decreased only in master athletes (-8.3%, p < 0.05), while no change was recorded in maximal voluntary torque or submaximal running economy following the event. The results indicate that for well-trained subjects, the overall relative exercise intensity during an Olympic distance triathlon and the fatigue 24 h following the event seem to be independent of age.

Four Weeks of a Neuro-Meditation Program Improves Sleep Quality and Reduces Hypertension in Nursing Staff During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Parallel Randomized Controlled Trial.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a neuro-meditation program to support nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Forty-five (10 men and 35 women) nurses were classified into three groups based on their systolic blood pressure: normotensive (G-nor; n = 16, 43.8 ± 11.0 year), hypertensive (G-hyp; n = 13, 45.2 ± 10.7 year) and control (G-con; n = 16, 44.9 ± 10.6 year). Using a parallel, randomly controlled design across a 4-week period, 10 × 30-min sessions using the Rebalance© Impulse were completed. Sleep was assessed by wrist actigraphy and subjective sleep questionnaires; perceived sleep quality, Ford Insomnia Response to Stress Test questionnaire and the Spiegel Sleep Quality questionnaire (SSQ). Blood pressure, resting heart rate, mean heart rate (HRmean), heart rate variability index (RMSSD), cortisol, and alpha-amylase were also measured. Statistical analysis was completed using factorial ANOVA. Sleep improved in the G-hyp group; SSQ (p < 0.01); perceived sleep quality (p < 0.01); sleep efficiency and fragmentation index (p < 0.05). In the G-nor group, sleep was improved to a lesser extent; perceived sleep quality (p < 0.01). A significant time-group interaction was reported in resting heart rate (p < 0.01), systolic blood pressure (p < 0.01), and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.05) with these measures being significantly reduced in the G-hyp group. RMSSD increased in the G-nor group (p < 0.01). This initial evidence suggests that neuro-meditation reduces excessive sympathetic activity, promoting enhanced sleep quality and autonomic control during periods of increased work-related stress. Clinical Trial Registration: The study was conducted at Bioesterel, Sophia-Antipolis, France as a clinical trial: Neuro-meditation improves sleep quality, https://www.drks.de/ui_data_web/DrksUI.html?locale=en, DRKS00025731.

Short term effects of various water immersions on recovery from exhaustive intermittent exercise.

In order to investigate the effectiveness of different techniques of water immersion recovery on maximal strength, power and the post-exercise inflammatory response in elite athletes, 41 highly trained (Football, Rugby, Volleyball) male subjects (age = 21.5 ± 4.6 years, mass = 73.1 ± 9.7 kg and height = 176.7 ± 9.7 cm) performed 20 min of exhaustive, intermittent exercise followed by a 15 min recovery intervention. The recovery intervention consisted of different water immersion techniques, including: temperate water immersion (36°C; TWI), cold water immersion (10°C; CWI), contrast water temperature (10-42°C; CWT) and a passive recovery (PAS). Performances during a maximal 30-s rowing test (P(30 s)), a maximal vertical counter-movement jump (CMJ) and a maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MVC) of the knee extensor muscles were measured at rest (Pre-exercise), immediately after the exercise (Post-exercise), 1 h after (Post 1 h) and 24 h later (Post 24 h). Leukocyte profile and venous blood markers of muscle damage (creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)) were also measured Pre-exercise, Post 1 h and Post 24 h. A significant time effect was observed to indicate a reduction in performance (Pre-exercise vs. Post-exercise) following the exercise bout in all conditions (P < 0.05). Indeed, at 1 h post exercise, a significant improvement in MVC and P(30 s) was respectively observed in the CWI and CWT groups compared to pre-exercise. Further, for the CWI group, this result was associated with a comparative blunting of the rise in total number of leucocytes at 1 h post and of plasma concentration of CK at 24 h post. The results indicate that the practice of cold water immersion and contrast water therapy are more effective immersion modalities to promote a faster acute recovery of maximal anaerobic performances (MVC and 30″ all-out respectively) after an intermittent exhaustive exercise. These results may be explained by the suppression of plasma concentrations of markers of inflammation and damage, suggesting reduced passive leakage from disrupted skeletal muscle, which may result in the increase in force production during ensuing bouts of exercise.

Effects of Ramadan intermittent fasting on middle-distance running performance in well-trained runners.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether Ramadan intermittent fasting (RIF) affects 5000-m running performance and physiological parameters classically associated with middle-distance performance. DESIGN: Two experimental groups (Ramadan fasting, n = 9, vs control, n = 9) participated in 2 experimental sessions, one before RIF and the other at the last week of fasting. SETTING: For each session, subjects completed 4 tests in the same order: a maximal running test, a maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of knee extensor, 2 rectangular submaximal exercises on treadmill for 6 minutes at an intensity corresponding to the first ventilatory threshold (VT1), and a running performance test (5000 m). PARTICIPANTS: Eighteen, well-trained, middle-distance runners. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Maximal oxygen consumption, MVC, running performance, running efficiency, submaximal VO(2) kinetics parameters (VO(2), VO(2)b, time constant τ, and amplitude A1) and anthropometric parameters were recorded or calculated. RESULTS: At the end of Ramadan fasting, a decrease in MVC was observed (-3.2%; P < 0.00001; η, 0.80), associated with an increase in the time constant of oxygen kinetics (+51%; P < 0.00007; η, 0.72) and a decrease in performance (-5%; P < 0.0007; η, 0.51). No effect was observed on running efficiency or maximal aerobic power. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that Ramadan changes in muscular performance and oxygen kinetics could affect performance during middle-distance events and need to be considered to choose training protocols during RIF.

Decreased energy availability during training overload is associated with non-functional overreaching and suppressed ovarian function in female runners.

Low energy availability (EA) suppresses many physiological processes, including ovarian function in female athletes. Low EA could also predispose athletes to develop a state of overreaching. This study compared the changes in ad libitum energy intake (EI), exercise energy expenditure (ExEE), and EA among runners completing a training overload (TO) phase. We tested the hypothesis that runners becoming overreached would show decreased EA, suppressed ovarian function and plasma leptin, compared with well-adapted (WA) runners. After 1 menstrual cycle (baseline), 16 eumenorrheic runners performed 4 weeks of TO followed by a 2-week recovery (131 ± 3% and 63 ± 6% of baseline running volume, respectively). Seven-day ExEE, EI, running performance (RUNperf) and plasma leptin concentration were assessed for each phase. Salivary estradiol concentration was measured daily. Urinary luteinizing hormone concentration tests confirmed ovulation. Nine runners adapted positively to TO (WA, ΔRUNperf: +4 ± 2%); 7 were non-functionally overreached (NFOR; ΔRUNperf: -9 ± 2%) as RUNperf remained suppressed after the recovery period. WA increased EI during TO, maintaining their baseline EA despite a large increase in ExEE (ΔEA = +1.9 ± 1.3 kcal·kg fat free mass (FFM)-1·d-1, P = 0.17). By contrast, NFOR showed no change in EI, leading to decreased EA (ΔEA = -5.6 ± 2.1 kcal·kg FFM-1·d-1, P = 0.04). Plasma leptin concentration mid-cycle and luteal salivary estradiol concentration decreased in NFOR only. Contrasting with WA, NFOR failed to maintain baseline EA during TO, resulting in poor performance outcomes and suppressed ovarian function. ClinicalTrials.gov no. NCT02224976. Novelty: Runners adapting positively to training overload (TO) increased ad libitum energy intake, maintaining baseline EA and ovarian function through TO. By contrast, NFOR runners failed to increase energy intake, showing suppressed EA and ovarian function during TO.

Age-related changes in neuromuscular function and performance following a high-intensity intermittent task in endurance-trained men.

BACKGROUND: Much attention has been focused on the need to design strategies to increase functional capacities in older populations. This has raised several questions regarding the ability of regular endurance training to preserve functional capacity with age. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to examine the age-associated changes in neuromuscular function in endurance-trained men before and after a high-intensity, intermittent fatiguing task. METHOD: Twenty-six healthy endurance-trained male subjects: 16 older (59-79 years) and 10 young (20-34 years) men performed a high-intensity, intermittent fatiguing exercise corresponding to 10 sets of 10 repetitions on a horizontal leg press at 70% of the individual one-repetition maximum. Maximal voluntary contractions and evoked contractions of the knee extensor muscles were performed before and after the exercise. RESULTS: Decreases in maximum voluntary contractions (older: -9.7%; young: -14.3%) and electromyographic activity were not different between groups. Peak twitch torque was reduced only for the older men and no changes in voluntary activation and M-wave properties were recorded in either group. CONCLUSION: The present study indicates that in endurance-trained men aged 59-79 years, muscle functional capacities are maintained despite losses in strength and contractile function related to the age.

Effects of a trail running competition on muscular performance and efficiency in well-trained young and master athletes.

To determine the acute effects of a trail running competition and the age-dependent differences between young and master athletes, 23 subjects [10 young (30.5 ± 7 years), 13 master (45.9 ± 5.9 years)] participated in a 55-km trail running competition. The study was conceived as an intervention study compromising pre, post 1, 24, 48 and 72 h measurements. Measurements consisted of blood tests, ergometer cycling and maximal isometric voluntary contractions (MVC). Parameters monitored included MVC, twitch- and M-wave properties, EMG (RMS) of the vastus lateralis, two locomotion efficiency calculations and muscle damage markers in the blood (CK, LDH). Results indicate post-race increases in CK and LDH, decreases in MVC values (-32 vs. -40% in young and master, P < 0.01), decreases in EMG, increases in contraction time and concomitant decreases in peak twitch values, and a decrease in locomotion efficiency (-4.6 vs. -6.3% in young and master, P < 0.05). Masters showed similar fatigue and muscle damage than young but recuperation was slowed in masters. This study shows that trail runs are detrimental to muscle function, and gives indication that training may not halt muscle deterioration through aging, but can help maintain performance level.

Pacing strategy during the initial phase of the run in triathlon: influence on overall performance.

The aim of the present study was to determine the best pacing strategy to adopt during the initial phase of a short distance triathlon run for highly trained triathletes. Ten highly trained male triathletes completed an incremental running test to determine maximal oxygen uptake, a 10-km control run at free pace and three individual time-trial triathlons (1.5-km swimming, 40-km cycling, 10-km running) in a randomised order. Swimming and cycling speeds were imposed as identical to the first triathlon performed and the first run kilometre was done alternatively 5% faster (Tri-Run(+5%)), 5% slower (Tri-Run(-5%)) and 10% slower (Tri-Run(-10%)) than the control run (C-Run). The subjects were instructed to finish the 9 remaining kilometres as quickly as possible at a free self-pace. Tri-Run(-5%) resulted in a significantly faster overall 10-km performance than Tri-Run(+5%) and Tri-Run(-10%) (p < 0.05) but no significant difference was observed with C-Run (p > 0.05) (2,028 +/- 78 s vs. 2,000 +/- 72 s, 2,178 +/- 121 s and 2,087 +/- 88 s, for Tri-Run(-5%), C-Run, Tri-Run(+5%) and Tri-Run(-10%), respectively). Tri-Run(+5%) strategy elicited higher values for oxygen uptake, ventilation, heart rate and blood lactate at the end of the first kilometre than the three other conditions. After 5 and 9.5 km, these values were higher for Tri-Run(-5%) (p < 0.05). The present results showed that the running speed achieved during the cycle-to-run transition is crucial for the improvement of the running phase as a whole. Triathletes would benefit to automate a pace 5% slower than their 10-km control running speed as both 5% faster and 10% slower running speeds over the first kilometre involved weaker overall performances.

Age-related decline in olympic triathlon performance: effect of locomotion mode.

This study describes the decline in performance with age during Olympic triathlon Age Groups World Championships among the different locomotion modes. Mean performance of top 10 performers were analyzed for each group of age using the exponential model proposed by Baker, Tang, and Turner (2003, Experimental Aging Research, 29, 47-65). Comparison in performance decline was done between locomotion modes. Decline in performance in triathlon as a function of age follows an exponential model. A significant interaction effect between age and locomotion mode was observed on performance values. In swimming, a significant decrease was observed close to 5% per year after 45 years. Decline in performance was less pronounced in cycling until 60 years. Analysis of the effect of age in the different locomotion modes of a triathlon could provide information for maintaining quality of life with aging.

Performance factors in the new combined event of modern pentathlon.

The aims of this study were to determine (1) the individual tactics employed by elite modern pentathletes within each discipline of the new combined running-shooting event, and (2) the consequences of these strategies on overall performance. For 36 male pentathletes competing in a World Cup event, we measured running velocity, transition time, shooting time, shooting accuracy, and delay per shot. Performances of the top third of athletes, middle third of athletes, and the bottom third of athletes in the combined event were compared. The difference in overall performance between the top third and middle/bottom thirds was predominately associated with better shooting accuracy (79 +/- 13%, 68 +/- 12%, and 64 +/- 10% success rate for top, middle, and bottom third, respectively) and faster shooting time (86 +/- 16 s, 109 +/- 19 s, and 117 +/- 23 s for top, middle, and bottom third, respectively). No significant differences in running velocity, transition time or delay per shot were observed among the three groups. All the competitors started significantly faster over the first 200 m of each of the three 1-km running stages. The last third of the approximately 3-km race was completed significantly faster by all athletes (P < 0.05). The main finding was that the best performers of the combined event distinguished themselves due to their greater shooting accuracy.

Influence of gender on pacing adopted by elite triathletes during a competition.

The aim of this study was to compare the pacing strategies adopted by women and men during a World Cup ITU triathlon. Twelve elite triathletes (6 females, 6 males) competed in a World Cup Olympic distance competition where speed and heart rate (HR) were measured in the three events. The power output (PO) was recorded in cycling to determine the time spent in five intensity zones ([0-10% VT1]; [10% VT1-VT1]; [VT1-VT2]; [VT2-MAP] and > or =MAP) [ventilatory threshold (VT); maximal aerobic power (MAP)]. Swimming and running speeds decreased similarly for both genders (P < 0.05) and HR values were similar through the whole race (92 +/- 2 and 92 +/- 3% of maximal HR for women and men, respectively). The distribution of time spent in the five zones during the cycling leg was the same for both genders. The men's speed and PO decreased after the first bike lap (P < 0.05) and the women spent relatively more time above MAP in the hilly sections (45 +/- 4 vs. 32 +/- 4%). The men's running speed decreased significantly over the whole circuit, whereas the women slowed only over the uphill and downhill sections (P < 0.05). This study indicates that both female and male elite triathletes adopted similar positive pacing strategies during swimming and running legs. Men pushed the pace harder during the swim-to-cycle transition contrary to the women and female triathletes were more affected by changes in slope during the cycling and running phases.

Two Weeks of High-Intensity Interval Training in Combination With a Non-thermal Diffuse Ultrasound Device Improves Lipid Profile and Reduces Body Fat Percentage in Overweight Women.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of an innovative strategy which combined low-frequency ultra sound (LOFU) with high-intensity interval training (HIIT) to improve physical fitness and promote body fat loss in overweight sedentary women. A placebo controlled, parallel group randomized experimental design was used to investigate the efficacy of a 2-week combined LOFU and HIIT program (3 sessions per week). Participants were allocated into either the Experimental HIIT group (HIITEXP, n = 10) or Placebo HIIT group (HIITPLA, n = 10). Baseline exercise testing (maximal oxygen uptake, lower limb strength and substrate oxidation test), dietary assessment, anthropometric measures and blood sampling were completed in week 1 and repeated in week 4 to determine changes following the program (Post-HIIT). During each training session, the HIITEXP and HIITPLA groups wore a non-thermal diffuse ultrasound belt. However, the belt was only switched on for the HIITEXP group. Delta change scores were calculated for body weight, body fat percentage (Fat%), muscle mass, V . O2 max, hip and waist circumferences, and all lipid variables from Baseline to Post-HIIT. Statistical analysis was completed using a repeated-measures factorial analysis of variance by group (HIITPLA and HIITEXP) and time (Baseline and Post-HIIT). Results showed significant improvements in maximal oxygen uptake (HIITEXP; Baseline 24.7 ± 5.4 mL kg-1 min-1, Post-HIIT 28.1 ± 5.5 mL kg-1 min-1 and HIITPLA; Baseline 28.4 ± 5.9 mL kg-1 min-1, Post-HIIT 31.4 ± 5.5 mL kg-1 min-1) for both groups. Significant decreases in Fat% (HIITEXP; Baseline 32.7 ± 3.2%, Post-HIIT 28.9 ± 3.5% and HIITPLA; Baseline 28.9 ± 3.5%, Post-HIIT 28.9 ± 3.4% kg), waist circumference (HIITEXP; Baseline 95.8 ± 9.6 cm, Post-HIIT 89.3 ± 8.9 cm and HIITPLA; Baseline 104.3 ± 3.5 cm, Post-HIIT 103.6 ± 3.4 cm) and triglycerides (HIITEXP; -29.2%, HIITPLA; -6.7%) were observed in the HIITEXP group only. These results show that HIIT combined with LOFU was an effective intervention to improve body composition, lipid profile, and fitness. This combined strategy allowed overweight, sedentary women to achieve positive health outcomes in as little as 2 weeks.