First record of Troglotrema acutum (Trematoda, Troglotrematidae) in European polecats Mustela putorius from Luxembourg.

We report the first record of the trematode Troglotrema acutum in skulls of European polecats (Mustela putorius) from Luxembourg. Thirty-one road-killed polecats from the northern and eastern parts of the country were examined. We found the trematode in three polecats from the administrative districts of Clervaux and Vianden in the northeast of the country. The parasites were detected in the frontal sinuses of one juvenile male as well as one adult of each sex. The animals were infected with six, nine and 13 adult trematodes, respectively, and we recovered 24 trematode eggs from one polecat. While the two adult hosts showed the lesions and deformations of the skull that are typical of T. acutum infections in polecats, the skull of the juvenile was not deformed. The prevalence of 9.7% reported here was lower than the values reported from Central European studies. Our findings indicate that the distribution range of T. acutum in western Central Europe extends to the Ardennes low mountain range.

Geographic Distribution of Raccoon Roundworm, Baylisascaris procyonis, Germany and Luxembourg.

Infestation with Baylisascaris procyonis, a gastrointestinal nematode of the raccoon, can cause fatal disease in humans. We found that the parasite is widespread in central Germany and can pose a public health risk. The spread of B. procyonis roundworms into nematode-free raccoon populations needs to be monitored.

Beyond the landscape: Resistance modelling infers physical and behavioural gene flow barriers to a mobile carnivore across a metropolitan area.

Urbanization affects key aspects of wildlife ecology. Dispersal in urban wildlife species may be impacted by geographical barriers but also by a species' inherent behavioural variability. There are no functional connectivity analyses using continuous individual-based sampling across an urban-rural continuum that would allow a thorough assessment of the relative importance of physical and behavioural dispersal barriers. We used 16 microsatellite loci to genotype 374 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from the city of Berlin and surrounding rural regions in Brandenburg in order to study genetic structure and dispersal behaviour of a mobile carnivore across the urban-rural landscape. We assessed functional connectivity by applying an individual-based landscape genetic optimization procedure. Three commonly used genetic distance measures yielded different model selection results, with only the results of an eigenvector-based multivariate analysis reasonably explaining genetic differentiation patterns. Genetic clustering methods and landscape resistance modelling supported the presence of an urban population with reduced dispersal across the city border. Artificial structures (railways, motorways) served as main dispersal corridors within the cityscape, yet urban foxes avoided densely built-up areas. We show that despite their ubiquitous presence in urban areas, their mobility and behavioural plasticity, foxes were affected in their dispersal by anthropogenic presence. Distinguishing between man-made structures and sites of human activity, rather than between natural and artificial structures, is thus essential for better understanding urban fox dispersal. This differentiation may also help to understand dispersal of other urban wildlife and to predict how behaviour can shape population genetic structure beyond physical barriers.

First detection and molecular identification of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in an introduced population of Reeve's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) in United Kingdom.

In the present study, we investigated blood samples of 196 invasive Reeve's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and 91 native roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) originating from the same area in Thetford Forest in Eastern England for the occurrence of blood pathogens such as Anaplasmatacae, Rickettsiales and Piroplasmida (Babesia spp., Theileria spp.) by using PCR. Babesia spp., Rickettsia spp. and Theileria spp. were not detected. Only two male (1%) Reeve's muntjacs and six (6.6%) roe deer were positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum with 100% identity among their sequences. However, it is not clear whether Reeve's muntjac is less susceptible to infection, less susceptible to infestation by I. ricinus, or an infection in Reeve's muntjac is more lethal and therefore less positive animals are taken during hunting events.

Unnoticed arrival of two dipteran species in Austria: the synanthropic moth fly Clogmia albipunctata (Williston, 1893) and the parasitic bird louse fly Ornithoica turdi (Olivier in Latreille, 1811).

In the framework of a mosquito-monitoring program conducted from 2014 to 2018, non-culicid dipteran bycatch was identified to species-level with a focus on Diptera of medical and veterinary importance as part of a biodiversity initiative and barcoding project ("Austrian Barcode of Life"). Two species hitherto not known from Austria, the regularly sampled synanthropic moth fly Clogmia albipunctata (Psychodidae) and a single specimen of the louse fly Ornithoica turdi (Hippoboscidae), were collected in Vienna and Lower Austria. We confirmed identification results using a barcoding approach and provide the first reference sequence for O. turdi.

Selenium and mercury in the hair of raccoons (Procyon lotor) and European wildcats (Felis s. silvestris) from Germany and Luxembourg.

This study examined the concentration of total mercury (THg) and selenium (Se), as well as the molar ratio of Se:THg in hair samples of terrestrial animals. THg and Se concentrations were measured from the hair of raccoons (Procyon lotor) and European wildcats (Felis s. silvestris) from Germany and Luxembourg. Median THg concentrations in hair from raccoons and wildcats were 0.369 and 0.273 mg kg-1 dry weight (dw), respectively. Se concentrations were higher in the hair of raccoons than of wildcats (0.851 and 0.641 mg kg-1 dw, respectively). Total mercury concentration in hair of raccoons from Luxembourg was almost 5× higher that found in hair of raccoons from Germany; however, Se concentration was similar. Thus, molar ratio of Se:THg was ~4× higher in the hair of raccoons from Germany than those from Luxembourg. Significant negative correlation was found between THg concentration and Se:THg molar ratio in both wildcats and raccoons.

Serological survey of feline viral pathogens in free-living European wildcats (Felis s. silvestris) from Luxembourg.

European populations of free-living wildcats have been shown to be exposed to cat viruses. Luxembourg has a high degree of habitat fragmentation, and hybridisation rates between domestic cats and wildcats are high. We therefore assessed the seroprevalence of six viruses in 34 serum samples collected between 2001 and 2016 from wildcats in Luxembourg. The values for feline leukemia virus (FeLV; 52.9%) and feline coronavirus (FCoV; 47.1%) were amongst the highest reported for wildcats. We found evidence for the cumulative likelihood of exposure to FCoV affecting its seroprevalence. Routine monitoring of viral agents in this strictly protected species should be considered.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama) and mouflon (Ovis musimon) in Germany.

Infections with the tick-borne pathogens Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. can cause febrile disease in several mammalian species, including humans. Wild ruminants in Europe are suggested to serve as reservoir hosts for particular strains or species of these pathogens. The aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of A. phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama) and mouflon (Ovis musimon orientalis) in Germany, and the diversity and host association of genetic variants of A. phagocytophilum and Babesia species. From 2009 to 2010, 364 spleen samples from 153 roe deer, 43 fallow deer and 168 mouflon from 13 locations in Germany were tested for DNA of A. phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. by real-time PCR or conventional PCR, respectively. Variants of A. phagocytophilum were investigated with a nested PCR targeting the partial 16S rRNA gene, and species of piroplasms were identified by sequencing. DNA of A. phagocytophilum was detected in 303 (83.2%) samples: roe deer, 96.1% (147/153); fallow deer, 72.1% (31/43); and mouflon, 74.4% (125/168). Sequence analysis of 16S rRNA-PCR products revealed the presence of nine different genetic variants. DNA of Babesia spp. was found in 113 (31.0%) samples: roe deer, 62.8% (96/153); fallow deer, 16.3% (6/43); and mouflon, 6.5% (11/168). Babesia capreoli, Babesia sp. EU1 (referred to also as B. venatorum), B. odocoilei-like and a Theileria species were identified. Co-infections with A. phagocytophilum and Babesia spp. were detected in 30.0% of the animals which were tested positive for A. phagocytophilum and/or Babesia spp. Roe deer had a significantly higher percentage of co-infections (60.8%), followed by fallow deer (14.0%) and mouflon (6.5%). Thus, the results suggest that roe deer plays a key role in the endemic cycles of the pathogens investigated.

Identifying a hunter responsible for killing a hunting dog by individual-specific genetic profiling of wild boar DNA transferred to the canine during the accidental shooting.

While genetic profiling can be a powerful tool to solve wildlife crime, comparably few examples of individual identification in wildlife forensics are available in the literature. Here, we report a case of an accidental shooting of a hunting dog during a wild boar drive hunt. The market value of trained hunting dogs can reach several thousand euro. No one admitted to killing the dog. Wild boar hairs were found in the dog's wound, suggesting that the bullet first hit a wild boar and then the dog. Since it was known who harvested each boar, we aimed to use individual-specific genetic profiles to link these hairs to a bagged animal and to identify the culprit. We genotyped 19 harvested boar and the unknown hair sample using 13 STRs. In the case of the hair sample, we performed multiple genotyping to ensure the reliability of the genetic profile. We showed that we genotyped sufficient loci to distinguish between separate individuals with certainty. While the three most informative loci were enough to differentiate the 19 reference individuals, we did find a perfect match at all 13 STRs between the hair DNA and one tissue sample. Since our methods were reliable and reproducible, we passed the relevant information on to forestry officials who will use the information we have provided to attempt to find an amicable solution.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii Antibodies and Risk Factors in Two Sympatric Invasive Carnivores (Procyon lotor and Nyctereutes procyonoides) from Zgorzelec County, Poland.

The intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii is distributed worldwide and infects many species of warm-blooded animals. Most mammals, including humans, can serve as intermediate hosts. This pathogen, with its zoonotic potential, causes toxoplasmosis, a condition that can range from subclinical to fatal in humans. It is therefore important to assess the occurrence of the pathogen, even if only indirectly through the detection of antibodies. Epidemiological data on the seroprevalence in wild animals, including invasive species, are rare in Poland. Therefore, we tested 197 wild raccoons (Procyon lotor) and 89 raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) from Zgorzelec County, southwestern Poland, for the presence of antibodies. Samples were collected between January 2019 and December 2020 and analysed using a commercial indirect modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off 1:25). The statistical analysis revealed significant differences in seroprevalence between the two predatory species. Of the 197 surveyed raccoons, 96 (48.73%; 95% confidence interval (CI): 41.73-55.73%) tested positive, while 25 of the 89 raccoon dogs (28.09%; 95% CI: 18.70-37.48%) were positive. Regarding risk factors, body weight and sex influenced the presence of T. gondii antibodies in both the species, with a higher likelihood of seropositivity among heavier animals and females, respectively. For raccoon dogs, juveniles were more likely to be seropositive than adults at a given weight. Our results suggest that T. gondii infection is widespread in the regional raccoon and raccoon dog populations, indicating a high level of parasite circulation in the environment.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Wild American Mink (Neogale vison): The First Serological Study in Germany and Poland.

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan that causes toxoplasmosis in warm-blooded animals. Although most infections in humans and animals are subclinical, an infection can nevertheless be fatal. One of the important characteristics in the epidemiology of this parasite is waterborne transmission. The American mink (Neogale vison), a mammal closely adapted to freshwater ecosystems, is a potential sentinel for T. gondii. We analysed meat juice from the heart of 194 wild minks collected between 2019 and 2022 in five study areas from Germany and Poland and tested for the presence of antibodies against T. gondii. The analysis was performed using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test (ELISA). Antibodies were detected in 45.36% (88/194, 95% confidence interval (CI): 38.39-52.41%) of the analysed animals. While the prevalence values ranged from 37.50% to 49.30%, there was no significant difference in seroprevalence between the study areas. Juveniles were less likely to carry T. gondii antibodies than adults (odds ratio: 0.216), whereas there was no significant difference in prevalence between the sexes (odds ratio: 0.933). The results of our study show that contact with T. gondii is widespread in minks, and the parasite is common in inland freshwater ecosystems in Germany and Poland. This indicates that watercourses play an important role in the spread of T. gondii oocysts.

Surveys on Baylisascaris procyonis in two of the three French wild raccoon populations.

Human infection by Baylisascaris procyonis can result in larva migrans syndromes, which can cause severe neurological sequelae and fatal cases. The raccoon serves as the definitive host of the nematode, harboring adult worms in its intestine and excreting millions of eggs into the environment via its feces. Transmission to paratenic hosts (such as rodents, birds and rabbits) or to humans occurs by accidental ingestion of eggs. The occurrence of B. procyonis in wild raccoons has been reported in several Western European countries. In France, raccoons have currently established three separate and expanding populations as a result of at least three independent introductions. Until now the presence of B. procyonis in these French raccoon populations has not been investigated. Between 2011 and 2021, 300 raccoons were collected from both the south-western and north-eastern populations. The core parts of the south-western and north-eastern French raccoon populations were free of B. procyonis. However, three worms (molecularly confirmed) were detected in a young raccoon found at the edge of the north-eastern French raccoon population, close to the Belgian and Luxemburg borders. Population genetic structure analysis, genetic exclusion tests and factorial correspondence analysis all confirmed that the infected raccoon originated from the local genetic population, while the same three approaches showed that the worms were genetically distinct from the two nearest known populations in Germany and the Netherlands. The detection of an infected raccoon sampled east of the northeastern population raises strong questions about the routes of introduction of the roundworms. Further studies are required to test wild raccoons for the presence of B. procyonis in the area of the index case and further east towards the border with Germany.

Microsatellite profiling of hosts from parasite-extracted DNA illustrated with raccoons (Procyon lotor) and their Baylisascaris procyonis roundworms.

BACKGROUND: Important information on movement pathways and introduction routes of invasive parasites can be obtained by comparing the genetic makeup of an invader with its spatial genetic structure in other distribution areas. Sometimes, the population genetic structure of the host might be more informative than that of the parasite itself, and it is important to collect tissue samples of both host and parasite. However, host tissue samples are frequently not available for analysis. We aimed to test whether it is possible to generate reliable microsatellite profiles of host individuals by amplifying DNA extracted from a nematode parasite, using the raccoon (Procyon lotor) and the raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) as a test case. METHODS: Between 2020 and 2021, we collected tissue as well as a single roundworm each from 12 raccoons from central Germany. Both the raccoon and the roundworm DNA extracts were genotyped using 17 raccoon-specific microsatellite loci. For each roundworm DNA extract, we performed at least eight amplification reactions per microsatellite locus. RESULTS: We extracted amplifiable raccoon DNA from all 12 roundworms. We obtained at least two amplification products for 186 of the 204 possible genotypes. Altogether 1077 of the 1106 genotypes (97.4%) matched the host-DNA derived reference genotypes and thus did not contain genotyping errors. Nine of the 12 roundworm-derived genetic profiles matched the reference profiles from the raccoon hosts, with one additional genetic profile containing genotyping errors at a single locus. The remaining two genetic profiles were deemed unsuitable for downstream analysis because of genotyping errors and/or a high proportion of missing data. CONCLUSIONS: We showed that reliable microsatellite-based genetic profiles of host individuals can be obtained by amplifying DNA extracted from a parasitic nematode. Specifically, the approach can be applied to reconstruct invasion pathways of roundworms when samples of the raccoon hosts are lacking. Further research should assess whether this method can be replicated in smaller species of parasitic nematodes and other phyla of parasites more generally.

Migrating Anatidae as Sources of Environmental Contamination with Zoonotic Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora and Microsporidia.

Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, and microsporidia are gastrointestinal pathogens that can cause various disease symptoms in both animals and humans. Numerous studies worldwide have confirmed the presence of these eukaryotic pathogens in nesting and migrating wild geese, ducks, and swans. Migration spreads these zoonotic enteric pathogens to distant locations, which could have public health implications. Soils and water bodies (lakes, ponds, rivers and wetlands) in urban and suburban areas have been shown to be vulnerable to contamination by waterfowl droppings. This review addresses the epidemiology of these enteric pathogens in wild migratory bird species (Anatidae) and some consequences of their spread in the environment. To date, both zoonotic pathogens and genotypes restricted to avian hosts have been found in faecal samples from 21 anatid species worldwide. One of the routes of infection for these zoonotic gastrointestinal micropathogens is the indirect route. For example, shared water bodies (e.g., for drinking or recreational purposes) previously contaminated by birds during the migratory season may facilitate infections of humans through water. However, it is unclear how much wild waterfowl contribute to the transmission of giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporosis, and microsporidiosis in many regions through contaminated environmental sources. Comprehensive epidemiological surveillance based on molecular data on gastrointestinal pathogens is crucial to take measures to control infections in the future.

Spread of the Zoonotic Nematode Baylisascaris procyonis into a Naive Raccoon Population.

The raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis), a gastrointestinal nematode of the raccoon (Procyon lotor), may cause a severe form of larva migrans in humans, which can lead to death or permanent neurological damage. Although roundworms were inadvertently introduced to Europe alongside their raccoon hosts, the parasite is not present in every raccoon population. It is important to understand the geographic distribution of B. procyonis, as early and rapid treatment can prevent severe pathologies in humans. We present evidence for the roundworm spreading into a naive raccoon population through natural dispersal of infected raccoons. We sampled 181 raccoons from Saxony-Anhalt, a German federal state containing contact zones of different raccoon populations, two of which were previously free of the parasite. We screened the raccoons for roundworms and used microsatellite-based assignment tests to determine the genetic origin of the raccoons and their parasites. We detected roundworms in 16 of 45 raccoons sampled in a previously roundworm-free area in the northern part of the state. The largest proportion of the genetic ancestry (≥ 0.5) of the 16 raccoon hosts was assigned to the previously naive raccoon population. Conversely, the genetic ancestry of almost all the roundworms was assigned to the nearest roundworm population in the southern part of the state. Infected raccoons have, therefore, spread to the north of the state, where they interbred with and infected local raccoons. It seems likely that the roundworms will continue to spread. Health authorities should consider continuous surveillance programmes of naive populations and raise public awareness.

Interactions of cranial helminths in the European polecat (Mustela putorius): Implications for host body condition.

Multiple helminth species commonly co-occur within mammals and their interactions may negatively affect the survival and breeding success of their hosts. However, it has been difficult to prove competition or mutualism between co-infesting helminths in field studies of wild mammals. The sinus cavities of European polecats (Mustela putorius) can be parasitised by the trematode Troglotrema acutum and the nematode Skrjabingylus nasicola and both helminths can co-occur within hosts. While both parasites can damage the host's bone structure and cause severe pathologies, their impact on host body condition is unclear. It is also unknown whether both parasites interact and how this might affect cranial damage and host body condition. We examined 515 fresh polecat skulls for the presence of both helminths and measured the hosts' amount of kidney perirenal fat as a measure of body condition. Our results demonstrated that, in addition to a host-intrinsic fixed factor (sex) and random factors accounting for spatial and temporal stochasticity, the helminths influenced each other's presence. Infestation with T. acutum increased the probability of catching S. nasicola with increasing age of the host, while males already infested with S. nasicola were more likely to become infested with T. acutum than females infested with the nematode. While we speculate that both effects resulted from parasite-induced behavioural alterations (increased foot consumption), it is not clear why, in the latter case, this effect would be stronger in males than females. We showed that the abundances of both parasites had significant positive effect on the likely presence of skull damage and a significant negative effect on the predicted presence of kidney fat. Given the evolutionary arms race that both host-parasite systems have undergone, it appears unlikely that either helminth played a significant factor in the population decline of the polecat in Europe.

First detection and low prevalence of Pearsonema spp. in wild raccoons (Procyon lotor) from Central Europe.

The urinary bladder and lower urinary tract of domestic and wild carnivores can be parasitised by filamentous nematodes from the genus Pearsonema (syn. Capillaria). Infestations are often asymptomatic, but severe courses in dogs and cats have been described. Hosts are infested through the ingestion of earthworms (Lumbricidae) which act as intermediate hosts. Epidemiological studies of Pearsonema in raccoons (Procyon lotor) in North America are scarce and previous studies of urinary bladder parasites of European raccoons did not provide evidence of infestation. We examined urine sediment or rinse water from urinary bladders of 499 wild raccoons from Luxembourg, Poland and five study sites in Germany. Pearsonema eggs were found in the urine sediment of 31 (6.2%) raccoons. Infested animals were found in all study areas with prevalence values ranging from 3.7% to 8.7%. No significant difference in prevalence was found either between animals in urban and rural areas or between sexes and age classes. Based on their morphology, the eggs were likely to be P. plica. Considering their increasing density in Central Europe, raccoons may play a previously overlooked role in environmental contamination with Personema eggs.

Molecular analysis of blood-associated pathogens in European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) from Germany.

European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) have not been investigated in large numbers for blood-associated pathogens in Germany, because wildcats, being a protected species, may not be hunted, and the collection of samples is therefore difficult. Thus, spleen tissue and whole blood from 96 wildcats from Germany found as roadkill or dead from other causes in the years 1998-2020 were examined for the prevalence of blood associated pathogens using molecular genetic tools. PCR was used to screen for haemotrophic Mycoplasma spp., Hepatozoon spp., Cytauxzoon spp., Bartonella spp., Filarioidea, Anaplasmataceae, and Rickettsiales, and positive samples were subsequently sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses were performed for Mycoplasma spp. and Hepatozoon spp. by calculating phylogenetic trees and DNA haplotype networks. The following pathogens were found: Candidatus Mycoplasma haematominutum (7/96), Mycoplasma ovis (1/96), Hepatozoon silvestris (34/96), Hepatozoon felis (6/96), Cytauxzoon europaeus (45/96), and Bartonella spp. (3/96). This study elucidates the prevalence of blood-associated pathogens in wildcats from Germany.

Babesiosis in Southeastern, Central and Northeastern Europe: An Emerging and Re-Emerging Tick-Borne Disease of Humans and Animals.

There is now considerable evidence that in Europe, babesiosis is an emerging infectious disease, with some of the causative species spreading as a consequence of the increasing range of their tick vector hosts. In this review, we summarize both the historic records and recent findings on the occurrence and incidence of babesiosis in 20 European countries located in southeastern Europe (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia), central Europe (Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland), and northern and northeastern Europe (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Iceland, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and Norway), identified in humans and selected species of domesticated animals (cats, dogs, horses, and cattle). Recorded cases of human babesiosis are still rare, but their number is expected to rise in the coming years. This is because of the widespread and longer seasonal activity of Ixodes ricinus as a result of climate change and because of the more extensive use of better molecular diagnostic methods. Bovine babesiosis has a re-emerging potential because of the likely loss of herd immunity, while canine babesiosis is rapidly expanding in central and northeastern Europe, its occurrence correlating with the rapid, successful expansion of the ornate dog tick (Dermacentor reticulatus) populations in Europe. Taken together, our analysis of the available reports shows clear evidence of an increasing annual incidence of babesiosis across Europe in both humans and animals that is changing in line with similar increases in the incidence of other tick-borne diseases. This situation is of major concern, and we recommend more extensive and frequent, standardized monitoring using a "One Health" approach.

Population genetics, invasion pathways and public health risks of the raccoon and its roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis in northwestern Europe.

The geographic range of the zoonotic raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) is expanding together with the range of its host, the raccoon (Procyon lotor). This creates a new public health risk in parts of Europe where this parasite was previously absent. In the Netherlands, a raccoon population is becoming established and incidental findings of B. procyonis have been reported. To assess the risk to public health, the prevalence of B. procyonis was determined in the province of Limburg, where currently the largest Dutch raccoon population is present, as well as in the adjoining region of southern Belgium. Furthermore, genetic methods were employed to assess invasion pathways of both the raccoon and B. procyonis to aid in the development of control measures. Macroscopic analysis of intestinal content and testing of faecal samples were performed to detect B. procyonis adults and eggs. The population genetics of both B. procyonis and its raccoon host were analysed using samples from central and northwestern Europe. B. procyonis was found in 14/23 (61%, 95% CI: 41%-78%) raccoons from Limburg, but was not detected in 50 Belgian raccoons. Genetic analyses showed that the majority of the Dutch raccoons and their roundworms were introduced through ex-captive individuals. As long as free-living raccoon populations originate from captivity, population control methods may be pursued. However, natural dispersal from the border regions will complicate prolonged population control. To reduce the public health risk posed by B. procyonis, public education to increase awareness and adapt behaviour towards raccoons is key.