VANGL2 protein stability is regulated by integrin αv and the extracellular matrix.

Vang-like 2 (VANGL2) is a four-pass transmembrane protein required for a variety of polarized cell behaviors underlying embryonic development. Recent data show human VANGL2 interacts with integrin αv to control cell adhesion to extracellular matrix proteins. The goal of this study was to further define the functional relationship between integrin αv and VANGL2. We demonstrate integrin αv regulates VANGL2 protein levels both in vitro and in the zebrafish embryo. While integrin αv knockdown reduces VANGL2 expression at membrane compartments, it does not affect VANGL2 transcription. Knockdown of integrin ß5, but not ß1 or ß3, also decreases VANGL2 protein levels. Inhibition of protein translation using cycloheximide demonstrates that integrin αv knockdown cells have increased VANGL2 degradation while interference with either proteasome or lysosome function restores VANGL2. We further show integrin activation and stimulation of cell-matrix adhesion using MnCl2 fails to influence VANGL2. However, MnCl2 treatment stabilizes VANGL2 protein expression levels in the presence of cycloheximide. In the converse experiment, blockage of integrin-mediated cell-matrix adhesion using a cyclic RGD peptide causes a reduction in VANGL2 protein levels. Together, our findings support a model where integrin αv and cellular interactions with the extracellular matrix are required to maintain VANGL2 protein levels and thus function at the plasma membrane.

The Gain-of-Function Integrin ß3 Pro33 Variant Alters the Serotonin System in the Mouse Brain.

Engagement of integrins by the extracellular matrix initiates signaling cascades that drive a variety of cellular functions, including neuronal migration and axonal pathfinding in the brain. Multiple lines of evidence link the ITGB3 gene encoding the integrin ß3 subunit with the serotonin (5-HT) system, likely via its modulation of the 5-HT transporter (SERT). The ITGB3 coding polymorphism Leu33Pro (rs5918, PlA2) produces hyperactive αvß3 receptors that influence whole-blood 5-HT levels and may influence the risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Using a phenome-wide scan of psychiatric diagnoses, we found significant, male-specific associations between the Pro33 allele and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and ASDs. Here, we used knock-in (KI) mice expressing an Itgb3 variant that phenocopies the human Pro33 variant to elucidate the consequences of constitutively enhanced αvß3 signaling to the 5-HT system in the brain. KI mice displayed deficits in multiple behaviors, including anxiety, repetitive, and social behaviors. Anatomical studies revealed a significant decrease in 5-HT synapses in the midbrain, accompanied by decreases in SERT activity and reduced localization of SERTs to integrin adhesion complexes in synapses of KI mice. Inhibition of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) rescued SERT function in synapses of KI mice, demonstrating that constitutive active FAK signaling downstream of the Pro32Pro33 integrin αvß3 suppresses SERT activity. Our studies identify a complex regulation of 5-HT homeostasis and behaviors by integrin αvß3, revealing an important role for integrins in modulating risk for neuropsychiatric disorders.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The integrin ß3 Leu33Pro coding polymorphism has been associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) within a subgroup of patients with elevated blood 5-HT levels, linking integrin ß3, 5-HT, and ASD risk. We capitalized on these interactions to demonstrate that the Pro33 coding variation in the murine integrin ß3 recapitulates the sex-dependent neurochemical and behavioral attributes of ASD. Using state-of-the-art techniques, we show that presynaptic 5-HT function is altered in these mice, and that the localization of 5-HT transporters to specific compartments within the synapse, disrupted by the integrin ß3 Pro33 mutation, is critical for appropriate reuptake of 5-HT. Our studies provide fundamental insight into the genetic network regulating 5-HT neurotransmission in the CNS that is also associated with ASD risk.

VANGL2 interacts with integrin αv to regulate matrix metalloproteinase activity and cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix.

Planar cell polarity (PCP) proteins are implicated in a variety of morphogenetic processes including embryonic cell migration and potentially cancer progression. During zebrafish gastrulation, the transmembrane protein Vang-like 2 (VANGL2) is required for PCP and directed cell migration. These cell behaviors occur in the context of a fibrillar extracellular matrix (ECM). While it is thought that interactions with the ECM regulate cell migration, it is unclear how PCP proteins such as VANGL2 influence these events. Using an in vitro cell culture model system, we previously showed that human VANGL2 negatively regulates membrane type-1 matrix metalloproteinase (MMP14) and activation of secreted matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2). Here, we investigated the functional relationship between VANGL2, integrin αvß3, and MMP2 activation. We provide evidence that VANGL2 regulates cell surface integrin αvß3 expression and adhesion to fibronectin, laminin, and vitronectin. Inhibition of MMP14/MMP2 activity suppressed the cell adhesion defect in VANGL2 knockdown cells. Furthermore, our data show that MMP14 and integrin αv are required for increased proteolysis by VANGL2 knockdown cells. Lastly, we have identified integrin αvß3 as a novel VANGL2 binding partner. Together, these findings begin to dissect the molecular underpinnings of how VANGL2 regulates MMP activity and cell adhesion to the ECM.

Autism gene variant causes hyperserotonemia, serotonin receptor hypersensitivity, social impairment and repetitive behavior.

Fifty years ago, increased whole-blood serotonin levels, or hyperserotonemia, first linked disrupted 5-HT homeostasis to Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs). The 5-HT transporter (SERT) gene (SLC6A4) has been associated with whole blood 5-HT levels and ASD susceptibility. Previously, we identified multiple gain-of-function SERT coding variants in children with ASD. Here we establish that transgenic mice expressing the most common of these variants, SERT Ala56, exhibit elevated, p38 MAPK-dependent transporter phosphorylation, enhanced 5-HT clearance rates and hyperserotonemia. These effects are accompanied by altered basal firing of raphe 5-HT neurons, as well as 5HT(1A) and 5HT(2A) receptor hypersensitivity. Strikingly, SERT Ala56 mice display alterations in social function, communication, and repetitive behavior. Our efforts provide strong support for the hypothesis that altered 5-HT homeostasis can impact risk for ASD traits and provide a model with construct and face validity that can support further analysis of ASD mechanisms and potentially novel treatments.

Pro32Pro33 mutations in the integrin ß3 PSI domain result in αIIbß3 priming and enhanced adhesion: reversal of the hypercoagulability phenotype by the Src inhibitor SKI-606.

The plasma-membrane integrin αIIbß3 (CD41/CD61, GPIIbIIIa) is a major functional receptor in platelets during clotting. A common isoform of integrin ß3, Leu33Pro is associated with enhanced platelet function and increased risk for coronary thrombosis and stroke, although these findings remain controversial. To better understand the molecular mechanisms by which this sequence variation modifies platelet function, we produced transgenic knockin mice expressing a Pro32Pro33 integrin ß3. Consistent with reports utilizing human platelets, we found significantly reduced bleeding and clotting times, as well as increased in vivo thrombosis, in Pro32Pro33 homozygous mice. These alterations paralleled increases in platelet attachment and spreading onto fibrinogen resulting from enhanced integrin αIIbß3 function. Activation with protease-activated receptor 4- activating peptide, the main thrombin signaling receptor in mice, showed no significant difference in activation of Pro32Pro33 mice as compared with controls, suggesting that inside-out signaling remains intact. However, under unstimulated conditions, the Pro32Pro33 mutation led to elevated Src phosphorylation, facilitated by increased talin interactions with the ß3 cytoplasmic domain, indicating that the αIIbß3 intracellular domains are primed for activation while the ligand-binding domain remains unchanged. Acute dosing of animals with a Src inhibitor was sufficient to rescue the clotting phenotype in knockin mice to wild-type levels. Together, our data establish that the Pro32Pro33 structural alteration modifies the function of integrin αIIbß3, priming the integrin for outside-in signaling, ultimately leading to hypercoagulability. Furthermore, our data may support a novel approach to antiplatelet therapy by Src inhibition where hemostasis is maintained while reducing risk for cardiovascular disease.

Transgenic elimination of high-affinity antidepressant and cocaine sensitivity in the presynaptic serotonin transporter.

Serotonin [i.e., 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)]-targeted antidepressants are in wide use for the treatment of mood disorders, although many patients do not show a response or experience unpleasant side effects. Psychostimulants, such as cocaine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (i.e., "ecstasy"), also impact 5-HT signaling. To help dissect the contribution of 5-HT signaling to the actions of these and other agents, we developed transgenic mice in which high-affinity recognition of multiple antidepressants and cocaine is eliminated. Our animals possess a modified copy of the 5-HT transporter (i.e., SERT, slc6a4) that bears a single amino acid substitution, I172M, proximal to the 5-HT binding site. Although the M172 substitution does not impact the recognition of 5-HT, this mutation disrupts high-affinity binding of many competitive antagonists in transfected cells. Here, we demonstrate that, in M172 knock-in mice, basal SERT protein levels, 5-HT transport rates, and 5-HT levels are normal. However, SERT M172 mice display a substantial loss of sensitivity to the selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitors fluoxetine and citalopram, as well as to cocaine. Through a series of biochemical, electrophysiological, and behavioral assays, we demonstrate the unique properties of this model and establish directly that SERT is the sole protein responsible for selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor-mediated alterations in 5-HT clearance, in 5-HT1A autoreceptor modulation of raphe neuron firing, and in behaviors used to predict the utility of antidepressants.

Dysregulation of dopamine transporters via dopamine D2 autoreceptors triggers anomalous dopamine efflux associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) modulates brain circuits involved in attention, reward, and motor activity. Synaptic DA homeostasis is primarily controlled via two presynaptic regulatory mechanisms, DA D(2) receptor (D(2)R)-mediated inhibition of DA synthesis and release, and DA transporter (DAT)-mediated DA clearance. D(2)Rs can physically associate with DAT and regulate DAT function, linking DA release and reuptake to a common mechanism. We have established that the attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-associated human DAT coding variant Ala559Val (hDAT A559V) results in anomalous DA efflux (ADE) similar to that caused by amphetamine-like psychostimulants. Here, we show that tonic activation of D(2)R provides support for hDAT A559V-mediated ADE. We determine in hDAT A559V a pertussis toxin-sensitive, CaMKII-dependent phosphorylation mechanism that supports D(2)R-driven DA efflux. These studies identify a signaling network downstream of D(2)R activation, normally constraining DA action at synapses, that may be altered by DAT mutation to impact risk for DA-related disorders.

Vigorous motor activity in Caenorhabditis elegans requires efficient clearance of dopamine mediated by synaptic localization of the dopamine transporter DAT-1.

The catecholamine dopamine (DA) functions as a powerful modulatory neurotransmitter in both invertebrates and vertebrates. As in man, DA neurons in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans express a cocaine-sensitive transporter (DAT-1), presumably to regulate synaptic DA signaling and limit DA spillover to extrasynaptic sites, although evidence supporting this is currently lacking. In this report, we describe and validate a novel and readily quantifiable phenotype, swimming-induced paralysis (SWIP) that emerges in DAT-1-deficient nematodes when animals exert maximal physical activity in water. We verify the dependence of SWIP on DA biosynthesis, vesicular packaging, synaptic release, and on the DA receptor DOP-3. Using DAT-1 specific antibodies and GFP::DAT-1 fusions, we demonstrate a synaptic enrichment of DAT-1 that is achieved independently of synaptic targeting of the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT). Importantly, dat-1 deletions and point mutations that disrupt DA uptake in cultured C. elegans neurons and/or impact DAT-1 synaptic localization in vivo generate SWIP. SWIP assays, along with in vivo imaging of wild-type and mutant GFP::DAT-1 fusions identify a distal COOH terminal segment of the transporter as essential for efficient somatic export, synaptic localization and in vivo DA clearance. Our studies provide the first description of behavioral perturbations arising from altered trafficking of DATs in vivo in any organism and support a model whereby endogenous DA actions in C. elegans are tightly regulated by synaptic DAT-1.

Mice lacking integrin ß3 expression exhibit altered response to chronic stress.

Recent studies indicate multiple roles for integrin αvß3 in adult neurons, including response to pharmacological agents such as cocaine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In this study, we examined the role of the integrin ß3 gene (Itgb3) in the response to environmental stimuli by subjecting Itgb3+/+ and Itgb3-/- mice to unpredictable chronic mild stressors. We found that genetic abrogation of integrin ß3 expression elicits an exaggerated vulnerability to chronic unpredictable stress in the open field test. In this test, chronic stress elicited significant decreases in stereotypic behavior and horizontal locomotor activity, including increases in anxiety behaviors. Mild chronic stress led to reductions in dopamine turnover in midbrains of Itgb3+/+, but not Itgb3-/- mice, suggesting a disruption of stress-dependent regulation of DA homeostasis. Chronic stress elicited altered synaptic expression of syntaxin and synaptophysin in midbrains of Itgb3-/- mice, when compared to Itgb3+/+. Semi-quantitative Western blot studies revealed that the synaptic expression, but not total tissue expression, of multiple signaling proteins is correlated with integrin αv levels in the midbrain. Moreover, loss of integrin ß3 expression modifies this correlation network. Together, these findings demonstrate that Itgb3-/- mice display a pattern of changes indicating disrupted regulation of midbrain synaptic systems involved in conferring resilience to mild stressors.

Integrin ß3 Haploinsufficiency Modulates Serotonin Transport and Antidepressant-Sensitive Behavior in Mice.

Converging lines of evidence have identified genetic interactions between the serotonin transporter (SERT) gene and ITGB3, which encodes the ß3 subunit that forms the αIIbß3 and αvß3 integrin receptor complexes. Here we examine the consequences of haploinsufficiency in the mouse integrin ß3 subunit gene (Itgb3) on SERT function and selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) effectiveness in vivo. Biochemical fractionation studies and immunofluorescent staining of murine brain slices reveal that αvß3 receptors and SERTs are enriched in presynaptic membranes from several brain regions and that αvß3 colocalizes with a subpopulation of SERT-containing synapses in raphe nuclei. Notably, we establish that loss of a single allele of Itgb3 in murine neurons is sufficient to decrease 5-HT uptake by SERT in midbrain synaptosomes. Pharmacological assays to elucidate the αvß3-mediated mechanism of reduced SERT function indicate that decreased integrin ß3 subunit expression scales down the population size of active SERT molecules and, as a consequence, lowers the effective dose of SSRIs. These data are consistent with the existence of a subpopulation of SERTs that are tightly modulated by integrin αvß3 and significantly contribute to global SERT function at 5-HT synapses in the midbrain. Importantly, our screen of a normal human population for single nucleotide polymorphisms in human ITGB3 identified a variant associated with reductions in integrin ß3 expression levels that parallel our mouse findings. Thus, polymorphisms in human ITGB3 may contribute to the differential responsiveness of select patients to SSRIs.

Serotonin transporter and integrin beta 3 genes interact to modulate serotonin uptake in mouse brain.

Dysfunctions in serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) systems have been associated with several psychiatric illnesses, including anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorders and autism spectrum disorders. Convergent evidence from genetic analyses of human subjects has implicated the integrin ß3 subunit gene (ITGB3) as a modulator of serotonergic systems via genetic interactions with the 5-HT transporter gene (SLC6A4, SERT). While genetic interactions may result from contributions of each gene at several levels, we hypothesize that ITGB3 modulates the 5-HT system at the level of the synapse, through the actions of integrin αvß3. Here we utilized a genetic approach in mouse models to examine Itgb3 contributions to SERT function both in the context of normal and reduced SERT expression. As integrin αvß3 is expressed in postsynaptic membranes, we isolated synaptoneurosomes, which maintain intact pre- and post-synaptic associations. Citalopram binding revealed significant Slc6a4-driven reductions in SERT expression in midbrain synapses, whereas no significant changes were observed in hippocampal or cortical projections. Expecting corresponding changes to SERT function, we also measured 5-HT uptake activity in synaptoneurosomal preparations. Itgb3 single heterozygous mice displayed significant reductions in 5-HT Vmax, with no changes in Km, in midbrain preparations. However, in the presence of both Itgb3 and Slc6a4 heterozygozity, 5-HT uptake was similar to wild-type levels, revealing a significant Slc6a4 by Itgb3 genetic interaction in the midbrain. Similar findings were observed in cortical preparations, whereas in the hippocampus, most Vmax changes were driven solely by Slc6a4. Our findings provide evidence that integrin αvß3 is involved in the regulation of serotonergic systems in some, but not all 5-HT synapses, revealing novel contributions to synaptic specificity within the central nervous system.

Genetic targeting of the amphetamine and methylphenidate-sensitive dopamine transporter: on the path to an animal model of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Alterations in dopamine (DA) signaling underlie the most widely held theories of molecular and circuit level perturbations that lead to risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The DA transporter (DAT), a presynaptic reuptake protein whose activity provides critical support for DA signaling by limiting DA action at pre- and postsynaptic receptors, has been consistently associated with ADHD through pharmacological, behavioral, brain imaging and genetic studies. Currently, the animal models of ADHD exhibit significant limitations, stemming in large part from their lack of construct validity. To remedy this situation, we have pursued the creation of a mouse model derived from a functional nonsynonymous variant in the DAT gene (SLC6A3) of ADHD probands. We trace our path from the identification of these variants to in vitro biochemical and physiological studies to the production of the DAT Val559 mouse model. We discuss our initial findings with these animals and their promise in the context of existing rodent models of ADHD.

Modeling rare gene variation to gain insight into the oldest biomarker in autism: construction of the serotonin transporter Gly56Ala knock-in mouse.

Alterations in peripheral and central indices of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) production, storage and signaling have long been associated with autism. The 5-HT transporter gene (HTT, SERT, SLC6A4) has received considerable attention as a potential risk locus for autism-spectrum disorders, as well as disorders with overlapping symptoms, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Here, we review our efforts to characterize rare, nonsynonymous polymorphisms in SERT derived from multiplex pedigrees carrying diagnoses of autism and OCD and present the initial stages of our effort to model one of these variants, Gly56Ala, in vivo. We generated a targeting vector to produce the Gly56Ala substitution in the Slc6a4 locus by homologous recombination. Following removal of a neomycin resistance selection cassette, animals exhibiting germline transmission of the Ala56 variant were bred to establish a breeding colony on a 129S6 background, suitable for initial evaluation of biochemical, physiological and behavioral alterations relative to SERT Gly56 (wild-type) animals. SERT Ala56 mice were achieved and exhibit a normal pattern of transmission. The initial growth and gross morphology of these animals is comparable to wildtype littermate controls. The SERT Ala56 variant can be propagated in 129S6 mice without apparent disruption of fertility and growth. We discuss both the opportunities and challenges that await the physiological/behavioral analysis of Gly56Ala transgenic mice, with particular reference to modeling autism-associated traits.

Dopamine signaling architecture in Caenorhabditis elegans.

AIMS: In this review, we highlight the identification and analysis of molecules orchestrating dopamine (DA) signaling in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, focusing on recent characterizations of DA transporters and receptors. METHODS: We illustrate the isolation and characterization of molecules important for C. elegans DA synthesis, packaging, reuptake and signaling and examine how mutations in these proteins are being exploited through in vitro and in vivo paradigms to yield novel insights of protein structure, DA signaling pathways and DA-supported behaviors. RESULTS: DA signaling in the worm, as in man, arises by synaptic and nonsynaptic release from a small number of cells that exert modulatory control over a larger network underlying C. elegans behavior. CONCLUSIONS: The C. elegans model system offers unique opportunities to elucidate ill-defined pathways that support DA release, inactivation, and signaling in addition to clarifying mechanisms of DA-mediated behavioral plasticity. Further use of the model offers prospects for the identification of novel genes and proteins whose study may yield benefits for DA-supported neural disorders in man.

A genetic screen in Caenorhabditis elegans for dopamine neuron insensitivity to 6-hydroxydopamine identifies dopamine transporter mutants impacting transporter biosynthesis and trafficking.

The presynaptic dopamine (DA) transporter (DAT) is a major determinant of synaptic DA inactivation, an important target for psychostimulants including cocaine and amphetamine, and a mediator of DA neuron vulnerability to the neurotoxins 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion. To exploit genetic approaches for the study of DATs and neural degeneration, we exploited the visibility of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged DA neurons in transgenic nematodes to implement a forward genetic screen for suppressors of 6-OHDA sensitivity. In our initial effort, we identified three novel dat-1 alleles conferring 6-OHDA resistance. Two of the dat-1 alleles derive from point mutations in conserved glycine residues (G55, G90) in contiguous DAT-1 transmembrane domains (TM1 and TM2, respectively), whereas the third allele results in altered translation of the transporter's COOH terminus. Our studies reveal biosynthetic, trafficking and functional defects in the DAT-1 mutants, exhibited both in vitro and in vivo. These studies validate a forward genetic approach to the isolation of DA neuron-specific toxin suppressors and point to critical contributions of the mutated residues, as well as elements of the DAT-1 COOH terminus, to functional expression of catecholamine transporters in neurons.