Autophagy is induced by swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus through the cellular IRE1-JNK-Beclin 1 signaling pathway after an interaction of viral membrane-associated papain-like protease and GRP78.

Autophagy plays an important role in the infectious processes of diverse pathogens. For instance, cellular autophagy could be harnessed by viruses to facilitate replication. However, it is still uncertain about the interplay of autophagy and swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) in cells. In this study, we reported that SADS-CoV infection could induce a complete autophagy process both in vitro and in vivo, and an inhibition of autophagy significantly decreased SADS-CoV production, thus suggesting that autophagy facilitated the replication of SADS-CoV. We found that ER stress and its downstream IRE1 pathway were indispensable in the processes of SADS-CoV-induced autophagy. We also demonstrated that IRE1-JNK-Beclin 1 signaling pathway, neither PERK-EIF2S1 nor ATF6 pathways, was essential during SADS-CoV-induced autophagy. Importantly, our work provided the first evidence that expression of SADS-CoV PLP2-TM protein induced autophagy through the IRE1-JNK-Beclin 1 signaling pathway. Furthermore, the interaction of viral PLP2-TMF451-L490 domain and substrate-binding domain of GRP78 was identified to activate the IRE1-JNK-Beclin 1 signaling pathway, and thus resulting in autophagy, and in turn, enhancing SADS-CoV replication. Collectively, these results not only showed that autophagy promoted SADS-CoV replication in cultured cells, but also revealed that the molecular mechanism underlying SADS-CoV-induced autophagy in cells.

The TGEV Membrane Protein Interacts with HSC70 To Direct Virus Internalization through Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis.

Coronavirus membrane protein is a major component of the viral envelope and plays a central role in the viral life cycle. Studies of the coronavirus membrane protein (M) have mainly focused on its role in viral assembly and budding, but whether M protein is involved in the initial stage of viral replication remains unclear. In this study, eight proteins in transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV)-infected cells coimmunoprecipitated with monoclonal antibodies (MAb) against M protein in PK-15 cells, heat shock cognate protein 70 (HSC70), and clathrin were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-tandem time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Further studies demonstrated that HSC70 and TGEV M colocalized on the cell surface in early stages of TGEV infection; specifically, HSC70 bound M protein through its substrate-binding domain (SBD) and preincubation of TGEV with anti-M serum to block the interaction of M and HSC70 reduced the internalization of TGEV, thus demonstrating that the M-HSC70 interaction mediates the internalization of TGEV. Remarkably, the process of internalization was dependent on clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) in PK-15 cells. Furthermore, inhibition of the ATPase activity of HSC70 reduced the efficiency of CME. Collectively, our results indicated that HSC70 is a newly identified host factor involved in TGEV infection. Taken together, our findings clearly illustrate a novel role for TGEV M protein in the viral life cycle and present a unique strategy used by HSC70 to promote TGEV infection in which the interaction with M protein directs viral internalization. These studies provide new insights into the life cycle of coronaviruses. IMPORTANCE TGEV is the causative agent of porcine diarrhea, a viral disease that economically affects the pig industry in many countries. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying viral replication remain incompletely understood. Here, we provide evidence of a previously undescribed role of M protein in viral replication during early stages. We also identified HSC70 as a new host factor affecting TGEV infection. We demonstrate that the interaction between M and HSC70 directs TGEV internalization in a manner dependent on CME, thus revealing a novel mechanism for TGEV replication. We believe that this study may change our understanding of the first steps of infection of cells with coronavirus. This study should facilitate the development of anti-TGEV therapeutic agents by targeting the host factors and may provide a new strategy for the control of porcine diarrhea.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus nucleocapsid protein antagonizes the IFN response through inhibiting TRIM25 oligomerization and functional activation of RIG-I/TRIM25.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), an emerging Alpha-coronavirus, brings huge economic loss in swine industry. Interferons (IFNs) participate in a frontline antiviral defense mechanism triggering the activation of numerous downstream antiviral genes. Here, we demonstrated that TRIM25 overexpression significantly inhibited SADS-CoV replication, whereas TRIM25 deficiency markedly increased viral yield. We found that SADS-CoV N protein suppressed interferon-beta (IFN-ß) production induced by Sendai virus (SeV) or poly(I:C). Moreover, we determined that SADS-CoV N protein interacted with RIG-I N-terminal two caspase activation and recruitment domains (2CARDs) and TRIM25 coiled-coil dimerization (CCD) domain. The interaction of SADS-CoV N protein with RIG-I and TRIM25 caused TRIM25 multimerization inhibition, the RIG-I-TRIM25 interaction disruption, and consequent the IRF3 and TBK1 phosphorylation impediment. Overexpression of SADS-CoV N protein facilitated the replication of VSV-GFP by suppressing IFN-ß production. Our results demonstrate that SADS-CoV N suppresses the host IFN response, thus highlighting the significant involvement of TRIM25 in regulating antiviral immune defenses.

Correlation of gut dominant microbiota with hyperuricemia. / åŸºäºŽç²ªä¾¿è‚ é“ä¼˜åŠ¿èŒç¾¤æ£€æµ‹æ•°æ®çš„é«˜å°¿é ¸è¡€ç—‡ç›¸å ³å½±å“å› ç´ åˆ†æž.

OBJECTIVES: To study the correlation of intestinal dominant flora with hyperuricemia, and to explore influencing factors of hyperuricemia. METHODS: Data of gut dominant microbiota were collected from subjects who underwent health check-up in Shulan (Hangzhou) Hospital from January 2018 to April 2020. Subjects with high uric acid and normal uric acid were matched by propensity score matching method according to age, gender and body mass index (BMI). This resulted in 178 pairs as hyperuricemia group and control group. The gut dominant microbiota between hyperuricemia and normal control group were compared. Pearson or Spearman correlation coefficient method was used to analyze the correlation between blood uric acid and intestinal dominant flora. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression were used to analyze the influencing factors of hyperuricemia. RESULTS: The abundance of Atopobium, Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Enterococcus, Clostridium leptum, Fusobacterium prausnitzii, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium butyricum and the ratio of Bifidobacterium to Enterobacter (B/E) in the hyperuricemia group were significantly lower than those in the control group (all P<0.01). The correlation analysis showed that serum uric acid were negatively correlated with the abundance of Atopobium (r=－0.224, P<0.01), Bacteroides (r=－0.116, P<0.05), Clostridium leptum (r=－0.196, P<0.01), Fusobacterium prausnitzii (r=－0.244, P<0.01), Bifidobacterium (r=－0.237, P<0.01), Eubacterium rectale (r=－0.125, P<0.05), Clostridium butyricum (r=－0.176, P<0.01) and B/E value (r=－0.127, P<0.05). Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that glutamyl transpeptidase was an independent risk factor for hyperuricemia (OR=1.007, 95%CI: 1.002-1.012, P<0.05), and the Atopobium was an independent protective factor for hyperuricemia (OR=0.714, 95%CI: 0.605-0.842, P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS: There are alterations in abundance of gut dominant microbiota in patients with hyperuricemia, and Atopobium abundance appears as a protective factor for hyperuricemia.

Rotavirus Viroplasm Biogenesis Involves Microtubule-Based Dynein Transport Mediated by an Interaction between NSP2 and Dynein Intermediate Chain.

Rotaviruses are the causative agents of severe and dehydrating gastroenteritis in children, piglets, and many other young animals. They replicate their genomes and assemble double-layered particles in cytoplasmic electron-dense inclusion bodies called "viroplasms." The formation of viroplasms is reportedly associated with the stability of microtubules. Although material transport is an important function of microtubules, whether and how microtubule-based transport influences the formation of viroplasms are still unclear. Here, we demonstrate that small viroplasms move and fuse in living cells. We show that microtubule-based dynein transport affects rotavirus infection, viroplasm formation, and the assembly of transient enveloped particles (TEPs) and triple-layered particles (TLPs). The dynein intermediate chain (DIC) is shown to localize in the viroplasm and to interact directly with nonstructural protein 2 (NSP2), indicating that the DIC is responsible for connecting the viroplasm to dynein. The WD40 repeat domain of the DIC regulates the interaction between the DIC and NSP2, and the knockdown of the DIC inhibited rotaviral infection, viroplasm formation, and the assembly of TEPs and TLPs. Our findings show that rotavirus viroplasms hijack dynein transport for fusion events, required for maximal assembly of infectious viral progeny. This study provides novel insights into the intracellular transport of viroplasms, which is involved in their biogenesis. IMPORTANCE Because the viroplasm is the viral factory for rotavirus replication, viroplasm formation undoubtedly determines the effective production of progeny rotavirus. Therefore, an understanding of the virus-host interactions involved in the biogenesis of the viroplasm is critical for the future development of prophylactic and therapeutic strategies. Previous studies have reported that the formation of viroplasms is associated with the stability of microtubules, whereas little is known about its specific mechanism. Here, we demonstrate that rotavirus viroplasm formation takes advantage of microtubule-based dynein transport mediated by an interaction between NSP2 and the DIC. These findings provide new insight into the intracellular transport of viroplasms.

A New Neutralization Epitope in the Spike Protein of Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) infects piglets and causes serious diarrhea as well as vomiting, dehydration, and death. The trimeric S protein plays a crucial role in the induction of neutralizing antibodies, and many neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against PEDV S protein have been developed. However, these mAbs exclusively target the S1 protein. In this study, we obtained a neutralizing mAb, 5F7, against the S2 protein of PEDV, and this mAb could neutralize new variant genotype 2 PEDV strains (LNCT2), as well as a genotype 1 PEDV strain (CV777), in vitro. The core sequence of the epitope was found in amino acid sequence 1261 aa~1337 aa. These findings confirm that the S2 protein possessed neutralizing epitopes and provided knowledge to aid further research on this virus.

Porcine deltacoronavirus enters cells via two pathways: A protease-mediated one at the cell surface and another facilitated by cathepsins in the endosome.

Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) is a pathogen belonging to the genus Deltacoronavirus that in 2014 caused outbreaks of piglet diarrhea in the United States. To identify suitable therapeutic targets, a more comprehensive understanding of the viral entry pathway is required, particularly of the role of proteases. Here, we identified the proteases that activate the viral spike (S) glycoprotein to initiate cell entry and also pinpointed the host-cellular pathways that PDCoV uses for entry. Our results revealed that cathepsin L (CTSL) and cathepsin B (CTSB) in lysosomes and extracellular trypsin in cell cultures independently activate the S protein for membrane fusion. Pretreating the cells with the lysosomal acidification inhibitor bafilomycin-A1 (Baf-A1) completely inhibited PDCoV entry, and siRNA-mediated ablation of CTSL or CTSB expression significantly reduced viral infection, indicating that PDCoV uses an endosomal pathway for entry. Of note, trypsin treatment of cell cultures also activated PDCoV entry, even when the endosomal pathway was inhibited. This observation indicated that trypsin-induced S protein cleavage and activation in cell cultures enables viral entry directly from the cell surface. Our results provide critical insights into the PDCoV infection mechanism, uncovering two distinct viral entry pathways: one through cathepsin L and cathepsin B in the endosome and another via a protease at the cell surface. Because PDCoV infection sites represent a proteases-rich environment, these findings suggest that endosome inhibitor treatment alone is insufficient to block PDCoV entry into intestinal epithelial cells in vivo Therefore, approaches that inhibit viral entry from the cell membrane should also be considered.

Construction of photonic crystals with thermally adjustable pseudo-gaps.

Photonic crystals (PCs) are periodic dielectric structures with photonic bandgaps and they can be used to control and manipulate photons effectively. Novel photonic crystal materials with tunable bandgaps can be prepared by changing the refractive index of the dielectric or lattice parameters under external stimuli, while using temperature to adjust the photonic band gap is a simple and convenient method. In this paper, silica PCs having different pseudo-gaps in the range of 450-750 nm were prepared with colloidal SiO2 spheres of different sizes. Thermo-sensitive PNIPAM hydrogel was then infiltrated into the PCs to obtain PNIPAM-PCs, whose pseudo-gap blue-shifted when the temperature was changed from 24 to 34 °C and exhibited good reversibility. The PCs with tunable bandgaps are significant for the development of integrated photonic devices, sensors, and in detection and other technologies.

Development of a rapid and sensitive europium (III) chelate microparticle-based lateral flow test strip for the detection and epidemiological surveillance of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), a member of the genus Alphacoronavirus, is the predominant cause of severe enteropathogenic diarrhea in swine. A simple, rapid, specific, and sensitive method is critical for monitoring PEDV on pig farms. In this study, a simple and rapid lateral flow immunoassay detection system that integrates europium (Eu) (III) chelate microparticles was developed to identify PEDV in fecal swabs. This newly developed diagnostic sandwich immunoassay utilizes lateral flow test strips (LFTSs). The fluorescence peak heights of the test line (HT) and the control line (HC) were measured using a fluorescence strip reader, and the HT/HC ratio was used for quantitation. The limit of detection of PEDV with this LFTS was ??ten times the median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) per mL??. Fecal swab samples were used to determine the cutoff value. Field samples, various PEDV strains and other viruses were used to determine the sensitivity and specificity of the Eu (III) chelate microparticle-based LFTSs, which were 97.8% and 100%, respectively, with a cutoff value of 0.05, as compared with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In samples from piglets experimentally infected with PEDV, the results were in high agreement with those obtained by RT-PCR. Epidemiological surveillance of PEDV using the LFTSs ??in areas threatened by African swine fever virus?? suggested that the PEDV positive rate on pig farms had significantly decreased, mainly due to the implementation of strict biosecurity measures. The results indicate that the Eu (III) chelate microparticle-based LFTS system is a rapid, sensitive, and reliable method for the identification of PEDV, indicating its suitability for epidemiological surveillance of PEDV infection.

Molecular characterization of an emerging reassortant mammalian orthoreovirus in China.

Mammalian orthoreoviruses (MRVs) infect almost all mammals, and there are some reports on MRVs in China. In this study, a novel strain was identified, which was designated as HLJYC2017. The results of genetic analysis showed that MRV HLJYC2017 is a reassortant strain. According to biological information analysis, different serotypes of MRV contain specific amino acid insertions and deletions in the σ1 protein. Neutralizing antibody epitope analysis revealed partial cross-protection among MRV1, MRV2, and MRV3 isolates from China. L3 gene recombination in MRV was identified for the first time in this study. The results of this study provide valuable information on MRV reassortment and evolution.

Correction: Liu et al. Cholesterol 25-Hydroxylase Suppresses Swine Acute Diarrhea Syndrome Coronavirus Infection by Blocking Spike Protein-Mediated Membrane Fusion. Viruses 2023, 15, 2406.

In the original publication [...].

Rotavirus infection inhibits SLA-I expression on the cell surface by degrading ß2 M via ERAD-proteasome pathway.

Group A Rotavirus (RVA) is a major cause of diarrhea in infants and piglets. ß2-microglobulin (ß2 M), encoded by the B2M gene, serves as a crucial subunit of the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) molecules. ß2 M is indispensable for the transport of MHC-I to the cell membrane. MHC-I, also known as swine leukocyte antigen class I (SLA-I) in pigs, presents viral antigens to the cell surface. In this study, RVA infection down-regulated ß2 M expression in both porcine intestinal epithelial cells-J2 (IPEC-J2) and MA-104 cells. RVA infection did not down-regulate the mRNA level of the B2M gene, indicating that the down-regulation of ß2 M occurred on the protein level. Mechanismly, RVA infection triggered ß2 M aggregation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and enhanced the Lys48 (K48)-linked ubiquitination of ß2 M, leading to the degradation of ß2 M through ERAD-proteasome pathway. Furthermore, we found that RVA infection significantly impeded the level of SLA-I on the surface, and the overexpression of ß2 M could recover its expression. In this study, our study demonstrated that RVA infection degrades ß2 M via ERAD-proteasome pathway, consequently hampering SLA-I expression on the cell surface. This study would enhance the understanding of the mechanism of how RVA infection induces immune escape.

Generation of APN-chimeric gene-edited pigs by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-in strategy.

The prevalence of porcine enteric coronaviruses (PECs), including transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), porcine delta coronavirus (PDCoV), and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), poses a serious threat to animal and public health. Here, we aimed to further optimize the porcine aminopeptidase N (pAPN) gene editing strategy to explore the balance between individual antiviral properties and the biological functions of pAPN in pigs. Finally, APN-chimeric gene-edited pigs were produced through a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knock-in strategy. Further reproductive tests indicated that these gene-edited pigs exhibited normal pregnancy rates and viability. Notably, in vitro viral challenge assays further demonstrated that porcine kidney epithelial cells isolated from F1-generation gene-edited pigs could effectively inhibit TGEV infection. This study is the first to report the generation of APN-chimeric pigs, which may provide a natural host animal for characterizing PEC infection with APN and help in the development of better antiviral solutions.

Cholesterol 25-Hydroxylase Suppresses Swine Acute Diarrhea Syndrome Coronavirus Infection by Blocking Spike Protein-Mediated Membrane Fusion.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) is an emerging porcine intestinal coronavirus that can cause acute diarrhea, vomiting, rapid weight loss, and high mortality in newborn piglets. Cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H) is a molecular mediator of innate antiviral immunity and converts cholesterol to 25-hydroxycholesterol (25HC). Previous studies have reported that CH25H and 25HC have an antiviral effect against multiple viruses. However, the interplay between SADS-CoV infection and CH25H or 25HC is still uncertain. Here, we found that CH25H and its enzymatic product 25HC restrained SADS-CoV replication by blocking membrane fusion. Our results show that CH25H was upregulated by SADS-CoV infection in vitro and in vivo, and that it was an IFN-stimulated gene in porcine ileum epithelial cells. Moreover, CH25H and CH25H mutants lacking catalytic activity can inhibit SADS-CoV replication. Furthermore, 25HC significantly suppressed SADS-CoV infection by inhibiting virus entry. Notably, we confirmed that CH25H and 25HC blocked SADS-CoV spike protein-mediated membrane fusion. Our data provide a possible antiviral therapy against SADS-CoV and other conceivable emerging coronaviruses in the future.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus replication is reduced by inhibition of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) is a newly discovered enteric coronavirus. We have previously shown that the caspase-dependent FASL-mediated and mitochondrion-mediated apoptotic pathways play a central role in SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis, which facilitates viral replication. However, the roles of intracellular signaling pathways in SADS-CoV-mediated cell apoptosis and the relative advantages that such pathways confer on the host or virus remain largely unknown. In this study, we show that SADS-CoV induces the activation of ERK during infection, irrespective of viral biosynthesis. The knockdown or chemical inhibition of ERK1/2 significantly suppressed viral protein expression and viral progeny production. The inhibition of ERK activation also circumvented SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis. Taken together, these data suggest that ERK activation is important for SADS-CoV replication, and contributes to the virus-mediated changes in host cells. Our findings demonstrate the takeover of a particular host signaling mechanism by SADS-CoV and identify a potential approach to inhibiting viral spread.

Genome Analysis of the G6P6 Genotype of Porcine Group C Rotavirus in China.

Swine enteric disease is the predominant cause of morbidity and mortality, and viral species involved in swine enteric disease include rotaviruses and coronaviruses, among others. Awareness of the circulating porcine rotavirus group C (PoRVC) in pig herds is critical to evaluate the potential impact of infection. At present, due to the lack of disease awareness and molecular diagnostic means, the research on RVC infection in China is not well-studied. In this study, diarrhea samples collected from pig farms were detected positive for RVC by PCR, and the full-length RVC was not previously reported for Chinese pig farms. This rotavirus strain was designated as RVC/Pig/CHN/JS02/2018/G6P6. A natural recombination event was observed with breakpoints at nucleotides (nt) 2509 to 2748 of the VP2 gene. Phylogenetic analysis based on nsp1 revealed that a new branch A10 formed. Collectively, our data suggest a potentially novel gene recombination event of RVC in the VP2 gene. These findings provide a new insight into the evolution of the rotavirus.

A porcine epidemic diarrhea virus strain with distinct characteristics of four amino acid insertion in the COE region of spike protein.

In recent years, a novel, highly virulent variant of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) has emerged, causing substantial economic losses to the pork industry worldwide. In this study, a PEDV strain named LNsy was successfully isolated in China. Phylogenetic analysis based on the whole genome revealed that PEDV LNsy belonged to the G2 subtype. For the first time, a unique four amino acids (4-aa) insertion was identified in the COE region of the spike (S) protein (residues 499-640), resulting in an extra alpha helix in the spatial structure of the COE region. To determine changes in virus-neutralization (VN) antibody reactivity of the virus, polyclonal antibodies (PAbs) against the S protein of different subtypes were used in a VN test. Both PAbs against the S protein of the G1 and G2 subtype showed reduced VN reactivity to PEDV LNsy. Further, recombination analyses revealed that PEDV LNsy was the result of recombination between PEDV GDS13 and GDS46 strains at the genomic breakpoints (nt 17,959-20,594 in the alignment) in the ORF1b gene of the genomes. Pathological examination showed gross morphological pathological changes in the gut, including significant villus atrophy and shedding of the infected piglets. These results indicated that a 4-aa insertion in the COE region of the S protein may have partly altered the profiles of VN antibodies and thus it will be important to develop vaccine candidates to resist wild virus infection and to monitor the genetic diversity of PEDV.

Neutralizing monoclonal antibody fails to recognize porcine epidemic diarrhea virus with two regions deleted in spike protein.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) has been prevalent for many years. The viral spike (S) protein is the major target of neutralizing antibodies. However, there is little understanding of the locations of the neutralizing antibody epitopes in the spike structure. Here, we used a polyclonal antibody (pAb) against PEDV and a neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) to isolate escape mutants of PEDV strain LNCT2. Finally, we isolated an escape mutant strain of PEDV, mutant-1B9, but still neutralized by the pAb. Analysis showed two regions deleted in the S protein which allowed mutant-1B9 to escape neutralization by mAb 1B9. These results suggest the deleted amino acids participate in the formation of conformational epitope and provides valuable information for mapping conformational epitopes. Importantly, no PEDV escape mutants were generated by treatment with pAbs, which suggests the potential utility of pAbs or combination therapies based on several mAbs in controlling PEDV infections.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus-induced apoptosis is caspase- and cyclophilin D- dependent.

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), a newly discovered enteric coronavirus, is the aetiological agent that causes severe clinical diarrhea and intestinal pathological damage in piglets. To understand the effect of SADS-CoV on host cells, we characterized the apoptotic pathways and elucidated mechanisms underlying the process of apoptotic cell death after SADS-CoV infection. SADS-CoV-infected cells showed evidence of apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. The use of a pan-caspase inhibitor resulted in the inhibition of SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis and reduction in SADS-CoV replication, suggestive of the association of a caspase-dependent pathway. Furthermore, SADS-CoV infection activated the initiators caspase-8 and -9 and upregulated FasL and Bid cleavage, demonstrating a crosstalk between the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. However, the proapoptotic proteins Bax and Cytochrome c (Cyt c) relocalized to the mitochondria and cytoplasm, respectively, after infection by SADS-CoV. Moreover, Vero E6 and IPI-2I cells treated with cyclosporin A (CsA), an inhibitor of mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening, were completely protected from SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis and viral replication, suggesting the involvement of cyclophilin D (CypD) in these processes. Altogether, our results indicate that caspase-dependent FasL (extrinsic)- and mitochondria (intrinsic)- mediated apoptotic pathways play a central role in SADS-CoV-induced apoptosis that facilitates viral replication. In summary, these findings demonstrate mechanisms by which SADS-CoV induces apoptosis and improve our understanding of SADS-CoV pathogenesis.

Pathogenicity of porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) strain NH and immunization of pregnant sows with an inactivated PDCoV vaccine protects 5-day-old neonatal piglets from virulent challenge.

In this study, the pathogenicity of porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) strain NH (passage 10, P10) was evaluated. We found that PDCoV strain NH is enteropathogenic in 5-day-old pigs. Pathogenicity experiments provided a challenge model for studying the protection efficiency of passive immunity. In order to investigate the protective efficacy of passive immunity in newborn piglets, pregnant sows were vaccinated with either a PDCoV-inactivated vaccine at the Houhai acupoint (n = 5) or DMEM as a negative control (n = 2) using a prime/boost strategy 20 and 40 days before delivery. PDCoV spike (S)-specific IgG and neutralizing antibody (NA) responses were detected in immunized sows and piglets born to immunized sows. PDCoV spike (S)-specific sIgA was also detected in the colostrum and milk of immunized sows. Five days post-farrowing, piglets were orally challenged with PDCoV strain NH (105 TCID50 /piglet). Severe diarrhoea, high levels of viral RNA copies and substantial intestinal villus atrophy were detected in piglets born to unimmunized sows. Only 4 of 31 piglets (12.9%) born to immunized sows in the challenge group displayed mild to moderate diarrhoea, lower viral RNA copies and minor intestinal villi damage compared to piglets born to unimmunized sows post-challenge. Mock piglets exhibited no typical clinical symptoms. The challenge experiment results indicated that the inactivated PDCoV vaccine exhibited 87.1% protective efficacy in the piglets. These findings suggest that the inactivated PDCoV vaccine has the potential to be an effective vaccine, providing protection against virulent PDCoV.