Contrasting life histories contribute to divergent patterns of genetic diversity and population connectivity in freshwater sculpin fishes.

BACKGROUND: Life history characteristics are considered important factors influencing the evolutionary processes of natural populations, including the patterns of population genetic structure of a species. The sister species Cottus hangiongensis and C. koreanus are small bottom-dwelling freshwater sculpin fishes from South Korea that display marked life history divergence but are morphologically nearly indistinguishable. Cottus hangiongensis evolved an 'amphidromous' life history with a post-hatching pelagic larval phase. They spawn many small eggs in the low reaches of rivers, and hatched larvae migrate to the sea before returning to grow to maturity in the river mouth. In contrast, C. koreanus evolved a 'fluvial' landlocked type with benthic larvae. They release a smaller number of larger eggs, and the larvae undergo direct development, remaining benthic in the upstream rivers throughout their entire lives. We tested whether there were differences in patterns and levels of within-population genetic diversities and spatial population structure between the two closely related Korean sculpins using mitochondrial DNA control region sequences and seven nuclear microsatellite loci. RESULTS: The combined analyses of both marker sets revealed that C. hangiongensis harboured considerably higher levels of within-population genetic diversities (e.g. haplotype/allelic richness, heterozygosities) than C. koreanus. In contrast, the fluvial sculpin exhibited noticeably more spatial population structure than did the amphidromous sculpin, as suggested by pairwise FST statistics. The finding that C. hangiongensis individuals comprised a single random mating population across the east-flowing river basins in the Korean Peninsula, whereas C. koreanus individuals comprised genetically discrete individual populations, was further supported by an individual-based Bayesian population assignment and also factorial correspondence analyses. CONCLUSIONS: The higher genetic diversity, but lower population structure, of the amphidromous sculpin relative to the fluvial sculpin may have resulted from its greater larval dispersal and also possibly, higher fecundity accompanied by an amphidromous life history. Hence, we conclude that contrasting early life histories - including the presence or absence of the pelagic larval phase - may have led to divergent patterns of within-population genetic diversities and spatial population structure between the sister Cottus species following speciation from a common ancestor of marine sculpin.

Maturation and survival of Cronobacter biofilms on silicone, polycarbonate, and stainless steel after UV light and ethanol immersion treatments.

Cronobacter sakazakii cells in biofilms formed on silicone, polycarbonate, and stainless steel coupons immersed in reconstituted powdered infant milk formula were treated with ethanol (10 to 70%) and UV light (12 to 2,160 mW.s/cm(2)) as antibacterial treatments. Biofilm maturation curves were determined after immersion at 25 degrees C for up to 144 h. Populations increased after subsequent immersion at 25 degrees C for 24 h in reconstituted powdered infant milk formula to the respective maximum levels of 7.96, 7.91, and 6.99 log CFU per coupon. Populations attached to silicone and polycarbonate surfaces to a greater extent than to stainless steel (P < 0.05). Treatment with 10% ethanol did not cause a significant decrease in the level of C. sakazakii, but treatment with 30, 40, and 50% ethanol reduced the levels to approximately 1.73, 3.02, and 4.17 log CFU per coupon, respectively. C. sakazakii was not detected on any coupon after treatment with 70% ethanol or 2,160 mW.s/cm(2) UV light. A synergistic effect of sequential ethanol and UV treatments was not observed.