New Insights into Calcite Dissolution Mechanisms under Water, Proton, or Carbonic Acid-Dominated Conditions.

Carbonate minerals are ubiquitous in nature, and their dissolution impacts many environmentally relevant processes including preferential flow during geological carbon sequestration, pH buffering with climate-change induced ocean acidification, and organic carbon bioavailability in melting permafrost. In this study, we advance the atomic level understanding of calcite dissolution mechanisms to improve our ability to predict this complex process. We performed high pressure and temperature (1300 psi and 50 °C) batch experiments to measure transient dissolution of freshly cleaved calcite under H2O, H+, and H2CO3-dominated conditions, without and with an inhibitory anionic surfactant present. Before and after dissolution experiments, we measured dissolution etch-pit geometries using laser profilometry, and we used density functional theory to investigate relative adsorption energies of competing species that affect dissolution. Our results support the hypothesis that calcite dissolution is controlled by the ability of H2O to preferentially adsorb to surface Ca atoms over competing species, even when dissolution is dominated by H+ or H2CO3. More importantly, we identify for the first time that adsorbed H+ enhances the role of water by weakening surface Ca-O bonds. We also identify that H2CO3 undergoes dissociative adsorption resulting in adsorbed HCO3- and H+. Adsorbed HCO3- that competes with H2O for Ca acute edge sites inhibits dissolution, while adsorbed H+ at the neighboring surface of CO3 enhances dissolution. The net effect of the dissociative adsorption of H2CO3 is enhanced dissolution. These results will impact future efforts to more accurately model the impact of solutes in complex water matrices on carbonate mineral dissolution.

Affinity of small-molecule solutes to hydrophobic, hydrophilic, and chemically patterned interfaces in aqueous solution.

Performance of membranes for water purification is highly influenced by the interactions of solvated species with membrane surfaces, including surface adsorption of solutes upon fouling. Current efforts toward fouling-resistant membranes often pursue surface hydrophilization, frequently motivated by macroscopic measures of hydrophilicity, because hydrophobicity is thought to increase solute-surface affinity. While this heuristic has driven diverse membrane functionalization strategies, here we build on advances in the theory of hydrophobicity to critically examine the relevance of macroscopic characterizations of solute-surface affinity. Specifically, we use molecular simulations to quantify the affinities to model hydroxyl- and methyl-functionalized surfaces of small, chemically diverse, charge-neutral solutes represented in produced water. We show that surface affinities correlate poorly with two conventional measures of solute hydrophobicity, gas-phase water solubility and oil-water partitioning. Moreover, we find that all solutes show attraction to the hydrophobic surface and most to the hydrophilic one, in contrast to macroscopically based hydrophobicity heuristics. We explain these results by decomposing affinities into direct solute interaction energies (which dominate on hydroxyl surfaces) and water restructuring penalties (which dominate on methyl surfaces). Finally, we use an inverse design algorithm to show how heterogeneous surfaces, with multiple functional groups, can be patterned to manipulate solute affinity and selectivity. These findings, importantly based on a range of solute and surface chemistries, illustrate that conventional macroscopic hydrophobicity metrics can fail to predict solute-surface affinity, and that molecular-scale surface chemical patterning significantly influences affinity-suggesting design opportunities for water purification membranes and other engineered interfaces involving aqueous solute-surface interactions.

Mechanism of monovalent and divalent ion mobility in Nafion membrane: An atomistic simulation study.

Polymer cation exchange membranes (CEMs) are widely used in water treatment processes. The fundamental factors that control the separation and selectivity of cations with different valences in CEMs are not fully understood. In this study, we use atomistic molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the underlying molecular mechanisms that control the mobility of cations with different valences in Nafion membranes. Our results indicate structural differences in binding of monovalent and divalent cations, which gives rise to differences in ion diffusion in Nafion. Monovalent cations are shown to be "territorially" bound, i.e., bound while partially hydrated, to the fixed charge groups whereas divalent cations are shown to be "site" bound, i.e., bound while fully dehydrated, to the charge groups on the polymer. This difference in binding structure gives rise to differences in transport characteristics of cations in Nafion.

Apparent Reactivity of Bromine in Bromochloramine Depends on Synthesis Method: Implicating Bromine Chloride and Molecular Bromine as Important Bromine Species.

The chloramination of bromide containing waters results in the formation of bromine containing haloamines: monobromamine (NH2Br), dibromamine (NHBr2), and bromochloramine (NHBrCl). Many studies have directly shown that bromamines are more reactive than chloramines in oxidation and substitution reactions with organic water constituents because the bromine atom in oxidants is more labile than the chlorine atom. However, similar studies have not been performed with NHBrCl. It has been assumed that NHBrCl has similar reactivity as bromamines with organic constituents in both oxidation and substitution reactions because NHBrCl, like bromamines, rapidly oxidizes N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine. In this study, we examined the reactivity of NHBrCl with phenol red to determine if NHBrCl reacts as readily as bromamines in an isolated substitution reaction. NHBrCl was synthesized two ways to assess whether NHBrCl or the highly reactive intermediates, bromine chloride (BrCl) and molecular bromine (Br2), were responsible for bromine substitution of phenol red. NHBrCl was found to be much less reactive than bromamines with phenol red and that BrCl and Br2 appeared to be the true brominating agents in solutions where NHBrCl is formed. This work highlights the need to reexamine what the true brominating agents are in chloraminated waters containing bromide.

Role of Carbonate Species on General Acid Catalysis of Bromide Oxidation by Hypochlorous Acid (HOCl) and Oxidation by Molecular Chlorine (Cl2).

Kinetic models for disinfectant decay and disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation are necessary for predicting water quality from the treatment plant to the tap. A kinetic model for conditions relevant to chloramine disinfection of drinking water (pH 6-9 and carbonate-buffered) was developed to simulate incomplete bromide (Br-) oxidation during short prechlorination periods because it is the first step in a complex system of reactions that leads to disinfectant loss and DBP formation. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl+Br-→kHOClHOBr+Cl-) and molecular chlorine (Cl2+Br-+H2O→kCl2HOBr+2Cl-+H+) were the free chlorine species relevant to Br- oxidation, and Cl2 hydrolysis and formation reactions (Cl2+H2O+A-⇌k-4k4HOCl+HA+Cl-) were necessary to accurately simulate Cl2 concentrations instead of assuming equilibrium. Previous work has shown that Br- oxidation by HOCl and Cl2 formation are acid-catalyzed and Cl2 hydrolysis is base-catalyzed, but the impact of carbonate species had not been studied. This work showed that the carbonate species have an enhanced catalytic impact with rate constants up to 1000 times larger than would be estimated by the Brønsted relationship for similar acids, which causes the oxidation by HOCl rate constant (kHOCl) to nearly double and oxidation by Cl2 to occur above pH 7 in high-alkalinity waters.

Effect of CaCO3(S) Nucleation Modes on Algae Removal from Alkaline Water.

The role of calcite heterogeneous nucleation was studied in a particle-coagulation treatment process for removing microalgae from water. Batch experiments were conducted with Scenedesmus sp. and Chlorella sp. in the presence and absence of carbonate and in the presence and absence of magnesium to delineate the role of CaCO3(S) nucleation on microalgae removal. The results indicate that effective algae coagulation (e.g., up to 81% algae removal efficiency) can be achieved via heterogeneous nucleation with CaCO3(S); however, supersaturation ratios between 120 and 200 are required to achieve at least 50% algae removal, depending on ion concentrations. Algae removal was attributed to the adsorption of Ca2+ onto the cell surface, which provides nucleation sites for CaCO3(S) precipitation. Bridging of calcite particles between the algal cells led to rapid aggregation and formation of larger flocs. However, at higher supersaturation conditions, algae removal was diminished due to the dominance of homogeneous nucleation of CaCO3(S). The removal of algae in the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ required higher supersaturation values; however, the shift from heteronucleation to homonucleation with increasing supersaturation was still evident. The results suggest that water chemistry, pH, ionic strength, alkalinity, and Ca2+ concentration can be optimized for algae removal via coagulation and sedimentation.

Mepolizumab treatment in patients with severe eosinophilic asthma.

BACKGROUND: Some patients with severe asthma have frequent exacerbations associated with persistent eosinophilic inflammation despite continuous treatment with high-dose inhaled glucocorticoids with or without oral glucocorticoids. METHODS: In this randomized, double-blind, double-dummy study, we assigned 576 patients with recurrent asthma exacerbations and evidence of eosinophilic inflammation despite high doses of inhaled glucocorticoids to one of three study groups. Patients were assigned to receive mepolizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody against interleukin-5, which was administered as either a 75-mg intravenous dose or a 100-mg subcutaneous dose, or placebo every 4 weeks for 32 weeks. The primary outcome was the rate of exacerbations. Other outcomes included the forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) and scores on the St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ) and the 5-item Asthma Control Questionnaire (ACQ-5). Safety was also assessed. RESULTS: The rate of exacerbations was reduced by 47% (95% confidence interval [CI], 29 to 61) among patients receiving intravenous mepolizumab and by 53% (95% CI, 37 to 65) among those receiving subcutaneous mepolizumab, as compared with those receiving placebo (P<0.001 for both comparisons). Exacerbations necessitating an emergency department visit or hospitalization were reduced by 32% in the group receiving intravenous mepolizumab and by 61% in the group receiving subcutaneous mepolizumab. At week 32, the mean increase from baseline in FEV1 was 100 ml greater in patients receiving intravenous mepolizumab than in those receiving placebo (P=0.02) and 98 ml greater in patients receiving subcutaneous mepolizumab than in those receiving placebo (P=0.03). The improvement from baseline in the SGRQ score was 6.4 points and 7.0 points greater in the intravenous and subcutaneous mepolizumab groups, respectively, than in the placebo group (minimal clinically important change, 4 points), and the improvement in the ACQ-5 score was 0.42 points and 0.44 points greater in the two mepolizumab groups, respectively, than in the placebo group (minimal clinically important change, 0.5 points) (P<0.001 for all comparisons). The safety profile of mepolizumab was similar to that of placebo. CONCLUSIONS: Mepolizumab administered either intravenously or subcutaneously significantly reduced asthma exacerbations and was associated with improvements in markers of asthma control. (Funded by GlaxoSmithKline; MENSA ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01691521.).

Bromamine Decomposition Revisited: A Holistic Approach for Analyzing Acid and Base Catalysis Kinetics.

Chloramine chemistry is complex, with a variety of reactions occurring in series and parallel and many that are acid or base catalyzed, resulting in numerous rate constants. Bromide presence increases system complexity even further with possible bromamine and bromochloramine formation. Therefore, techniques for parameter estimation must address this complexity through thoughtful experimental design and robust data analysis approaches. The current research outlines a rational basis for constrained data fitting using Brønsted theory, application of the microscopic reversibility principle to reversible acid or base catalyzed reactions, and characterization of the relative significance of parallel reactions using fictive product tracking. This holistic approach was used on a comprehensive and well-documented data set for bromamine decomposition, allowing new interpretations of existing data by revealing that a previously published reaction scheme was not robust; it was not able to describe monobromamine or dibromamine decay outside of the conditions for which it was calibrated. The current research's simplified model (3 reactions, 17 constants) represented the experimental data better than the previously published model (4 reactions, 28 constants). A final model evaluation was conducted based on representative drinking water conditions to determine a minimal model (3 reactions, 8 constants) applicable for drinking water conditions.

Bioavailability of Fullerene under Environmentally Relevant Conditions: Effects of Humic Acid and Fetal Bovine Serum on Accumulation in Lipid Bilayers and Cellular Uptake.

Carbon fullerene (C60) has emerged at the forefront of nanoscale research and application due to its unique properties. As the production of this nanoparticle rapidly increases, it can be released into natural aquatic environments and can accumulate in biological systems. This research examined the effects of humic acid and fetal bovine serum (FBS), which are ubiquitous in aquatic environments and representative of blood plasma in living organisms, respectively, on bioavailability of fullerene. Bioavailability was investigated using in vitro methods for lipid membrane accumulation and cellular uptake studies. Humic acid and FBS significantly changed the characteristics of fullerene including its particle size and surface charge. The effects of humic acid on lipid accumulation of fullerene depended on the lipid head charge. FBS also significantly decreased the lipid accumulation when positively charged and zwitterionic head groups were present on the lipids, possibly due to the higher steric repulsion of the protein coated nanoparticles. In addition, both humic acid and FBS protein effectively lowered the amounts of fullerene taken up by Caco-2 cells, which are derived from a human colorectal adenocarcinoma and have similar functions to the small intestinal epithelium. Results of this study suggest that surface modification of fullerene by environmentally relevant matrices can significantly affect the biological transport, as well as the possible toxicity of this nanomaterial.

Distribution of Fullerene Nanoparticles between Water and Solid Supported Lipid Membranes: Thermodynamics and Effects of Membrane Composition on Distribution.

The distribution coefficient (Klipw) of fullerene between solid supported lipid membranes (SSLMs) and water was examined using different lipid membrane compositions. Klipw of fullerene was significantly higher with a cationic lipid membrane compared to that with a zwitterionic or anionic lipid membrane, potentially due to the strong interactions between negative fullerene dispersions and positive lipid head groups. The higher Klipw for fullerene distribution to ternary lipid mixture membranes was attributed to an increase in the interfacial surface area of the lipid membrane resulting from phase separation. These results imply that lipid composition can be a critical factor that affects bioconcentration of fullerene. Distribution of fullerene into zwitterionic unsaturated lipid membranes was dominated by the entropy contribution (ΔS) and the process was endothermic (ΔH > 0). This result contrasts the partitioning thermodynamics of highly and moderately hydrophobic chemicals indicating that the lipid-water distribution mechanism of fullerene may be different from that of molecular level chemicals. Potential mechanisms for the distribution of fullerene that may explain these differences include adsorption on the lipid membrane surfaces and partitioning into the center of lipid membranes (i.e., absorption).

Simultaneous time-resolved inorganic haloamine measurements enable analysis of disinfectant degradation kinetics and by-product formation.

We demonstrate the application of proton transfer time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS) in monitoring the kinetics of disinfectant decay in water with a sensitivity one to three orders of magnitude greater than other analytical methods. Chemical disinfection inactivates pathogens during water treatment and prevents regrowth as water is conveyed in distribution system pipes, but it also causes formation of toxic disinfection by-products. Analytical limits have hindered kinetic models, which aid in ensuring water quality and protecting public health by predicting disinfection by-products formation. PTR-TOF-MS, designed for measuring gas phase concentrations of organic compounds, was able to simultaneously monitor aqueous concentrations of five inorganic haloamines relevant to chloramine disinfection under drinking water relevant concentrations. This novel application to aqueous analytes opens a new range of applications for PTR-TOF-MS.

Effects of lipid composition on partitioning of fullerene between water and lipid membranes.

Fullerene partition coefficients (Klipw) between water and solid supported lipid membranes were determined for membranes of various lipid types and composition over a range of temperatures. The log Klipw (L/kg) values for fullerene, which range from 3.1 to 5.3, depend on the lipid type in the lipid membranes. Partition coefficients increased with increasing temperature, increasing acyl chain length of unsaturated lipids. The results indicate that lipid composition is a critical factor for bioconcentration of fullerene.

Prediction of alkaline earth metal ion adsorption on goethite for various background electrolytes with the CD-MUSIC model.

As water scarcity drives the use of more saline water sources, contaminant fate and transport models must capture the impact of high concentrations of alkaline earth metal ions (AEMs) and background electrolytes in these more complex waters. By utilizing macroscopic adsorption data from various electrolyte systems, a Charge Distribution - Multisite Complexation (CD-MUSIC) model, capable of incorporating electrolyte adsorption, was able to accurately simulate the adsorption behavior of alkaline earth metal ions onto goethite. The modeling effort was guided by previous spectroscopic and surface complexation modeling of alkaline earth metal adsorption and built on previous CD-MUSIC modeling that accounted for changes in crystal face contributions to the surface site density as a function of specific surface area. The model was constrained to consider only two dominant surface complex species for each metal ion adsorption reaction. These two species were selected from 44 possible species through objective curve fitting of single-solute macroscopic adsorption data. While most of the alkaline earth metal surface complexes formed outer-sphere complexes at the goethite surface, an inner-sphere species was utilized for Mg2+. With the surface complex species and equilibrium constants obtained from this study, the calibrated model successfully predicted alkaline earth metal ion adsorption over a wide range of solution and surface conditions; the model predictions encompassed a wide range of pH (5-11), solute/solid ratio (1.37 × 10-5- 8.33 × 10-4 mol-solute/g-solid), ionic strengths (0.01 M - 0.7 M), and background electrolytes (Na+, Cs+, Rb+, Cl-, and NO3-) using the same crystal face contribution methodology for site density, capacitance values, and surface acidity constants adopted for proton and cadmium adsorption in previous work (Han and Katz, 2019). Model simulations for a range of background water chemistries demonstrated the potential for Mg2+ to reduce Cd2+ adsorption to goethite in model seawater and oil- and gas-produced waters.

Accounting for Ion Pairing Effects on Sulfate Salt Sorption in Cation Exchange Membranes.

Ion exchange membranes (IEMs) are frequently used in water treatment and electrochemical applications, with their ion separation properties largely governed by equilibrium ion partitioning between a membrane and contiguous solution. Despite an expansive literature on IEMs, the influence of electrolyte association (i.e., ion pairing) on ion sorption remains relatively unexplored. In this study, salt sorption in two commercial cation exchange membranes equilibrated with 0.01-1.0 M MgSO4 and Na2SO4 is investigated experimentally and theoretically. Association measurements of salt solutions using conductometric experiments and the Stokes-Einstein approximation show significant concentrations of ion pairs in MgSO4 and Na2SO4 relative to those in simple electrolytes (i.e., NaCl), which is consistent with prior studies of sulfate salts. The Manning/Donnan model, developed and validated for halide salts in previous studies, substantially underpredicts sulfate sorption measurements, presumably due to ion pairing effects not accounted for in this established theory. These findings suggest that ion pairing can enhance salt sorption in IEMs due to partitioning of reduced valence species. By reformulating the Donnan and Manning models, a theoretical framework for predicting salt sorption in IEMs that explicitly considers electrolyte association is developed. Remarkably, theoretical predictions of sulfate sorption are improved by over an order of magnitude by accounting for ion speciation. In some cases, good quantitative agreement is observed between theoretical and experimental values for external salt concentrations between 0.1 and 1.0 M using no adjustable parameters.

Inverse Design of Pore Wall Chemistry To Control Solute Transport and Selectivity.

Next-generation membranes for purification and reuse of highly contaminated water require materials with precisely tuned functionality to address key challenges, including the removal of small, charge-neutral solutes. Bioinspired multifunctional membrane surfaces enhance transport properties, but the combinatorically large chemical space is difficult to navigate through trial and error. Here, we demonstrate a computational inverse design approach to efficiently identify promising materials and elucidate design rules. We develop a combined evolutionary optimization, machine learning, and molecular simulation workflow to spatially design chemical functional group patterning in a model nanopore that enhances transport of water relative to solutes. The genetic optimization discovers nonintuitive functionalization strategies that hinder the transport of solutes through the pore, simply by patterning hydrophobic methyl and hydrophilic hydroxyl functional groups. Examining these patterns, we demonstrate that they exploit an unexpected diffusive solute hopping mechanism. This inverse design procedure and the identification of novel molecular mechanisms for pore chemical heterogeneity to impact solute selectivity demonstrate new routes to the design of membrane materials with novel functionalities. More broadly, this work illustrates how chemical design is a powerful strategy to modulate water-mediated surface-solute interactions in complex, soft material systems that are relevant to diverse technologies.

Effect of Dielectric Saturation on Ion Activity Coefficients in Ion Exchange Membranes.

Polymeric ion exchange membranes are used in water purification processes to separate ions from water. The distribution and transport of ionic species through these membranes depend on a variety of factors, including membrane charge density, morphology, chemical structure, and the specific ionic species present in the fluid. The electrical potential distribution between membranes and solutions is typically described using models based on Donnan theory. An extension of the original theory is proposed to account for the nonideal behavior of ions both in the fluid and in the membrane as well to provide a more robust description of interactions of solutes with fixed charge groups on the polymer backbone. In this study, the variation in dielectric permittivity in the membrane medium with electric field strength is taken into account in a model based on Gouy-Chapman double-layer theory to provide a more accurate description of ion activity coefficients in an ion exchange membrane. A semianalytical model is presented that accounts for the variation in dielectric permittivity of water in a charged polymer membrane. A comparison of this model with Manning's counterion condensation model clearly demonstrates that by incorporating changes in water dielectric permittivity with electric field strength, much better agreement with experiments can be obtained over a range of salt concentrations for different ions.

Fate of pyrene on mineral surfaces during thermal remediation as a function of temperature.

There is evidence that contaminants can transform at the elevated temperatures of thermal remediation; however, the contribution of redox active minerals to transformation has not been investigated. Three redox active minerals (i.e., birnessite (MnO2), magnetite (Fe3O4), and hematite (Fe2O3)) and one redox inactive mineral (Ottawa sand (SiO2)) were spiked with pyrene and thermally treated. Under dry, anoxic conditions, 100%, 75% ± 3%, 70% ± 15%, and 14% ± 28% of the initial pyrene mass was removed with birnessite, magnetite, hematite, and Ottawa sand, respectively, after treatment at 250 °C for 30 min. Under wet, oxic conditions, 92% ± 8%, 86% ± 12%, 79% ± 4%, and 42% ± 7% was removed for the same minerals, respectively, after treatment at only 150 °C for 30 min. Baseline studies with Ottawa sand resulted in volatilization alone of pyrene with no transformation observed. Increased pyrene loading was used to evaluate potential transformation pathways based on identified by-products, demonstrating that both oxidative and reductive pathways were operative depending on the conditions. Reaction products in the presence of redox active minerals indicate transformation was dominated by reduction via hydrogenation in dry experiments, and by oxidation via hydroxyl radicals in wet experiments. The latter was unexpected, because only low hydroxyl radical concentrations have been detected in mineral-water systems at ambient temperature. These results indicate that understanding dominant reaction pathways and products is advantageous for the design of efficient and safe thermally enhanced treatment systems.

The Donnan potential revealed.

Selective transport of solutes across a membrane is critical for many biological, water treatment and energy conversion and storage systems. When a charged membrane is equilibrated with an electrolyte, an unequal distribution of ions arises between phases, generating the so-called Donnan electrical potential at the solution/membrane interface. The Donnan potential results in the partial exclusion of co-ion, providing the basis of permselectivity. Although there are well-established ways to indirectly estimate the Donnan potential, it has been widely reported that it cannot be measured directly. Here we report the first direct measurement of the Donnan potential of an ion exchange membrane equilibrated with salt solutions. Our results highlight the dependence of the Donnan potential on external salt concentration and counter-ion valence, and show a reasonable agreement with current theoretical models of IEMs, which incorporate ion activity coefficients. By directly measuring the Donnan potential, we eliminate ambiguities that arise from limitations inherent in current models.

Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in biofilters removing trihalomethanes are related to Nitrosomonas oligotropha.

Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) in nitrifying biofilters degrading four regulated trihalomethanes-trichloromethane, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and tribromomethane-were related to Nitrosomonas oligotropha. N. oligotropha is associated with chloraminated drinking water systems, and its presence in the biofilters might indicate that trihalomethane tolerance is another reason that this bacterium is dominant in chloraminated systems.