Evaluation and selection of indicators for land degradation and desertification monitoring: types of degradation, causes, and implications for management.

Indicator-based approaches are often used to monitor land degradation and desertification from the global to the very local scale. However, there is still little agreement on which indicators may best reflect both status and trends of these phenomena. In this study, various processes of land degradation and desertification have been analyzed in 17 study sites around the world using a wide set of biophysical and socioeconomic indicators. The database described earlier in this issue by Kosmas and others (Environ Manage, 2013) for defining desertification risk was further analyzed to define the most important indicators related to the following degradation processes: water erosion in various land uses, tillage erosion, soil salinization, water stress, forest fires, and overgrazing. A correlation analysis was applied to the selected indicators in order to identify the most important variables contributing to each land degradation process. The analysis indicates that the most important indicators are: (i) rain seasonality affecting water erosion, water stress, and forest fires, (ii) slope gradient affecting water erosion, tillage erosion and water stress, and (iii) water scarcity soil salinization, water stress, and forest fires. Implementation of existing regulations or policies concerned with resources development and environmental sustainability was identified as the most important indicator of land protection.

Evaluation and selection of indicators for land degradation and desertification monitoring: methodological approach.

An approach to derive relationships for defining land degradation and desertification risk and developing appropriate tools for assessing the effectiveness of the various land management practices using indicators is presented in the present paper. In order to investigate which indicators are most effective in assessing the level of desertification risk, a total of 70 candidate indicators was selected providing information for the biophysical environment, socio-economic conditions, and land management characteristics. The indicators were defined in 1,672 field sites located in 17 study areas in the Mediterranean region, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Based on an existing geo-referenced database, classes were designated for each indicator and a sensitivity score to desertification was assigned to each class based on existing research. The obtained data were analyzed for the various processes of land degradation at farm level. The derived methodology was assessed using independent indicators, such as the measured soil erosion rate, and the organic matter content of the soil. Based on regression analyses, the collected indicator set can be reduced to a number of effective indicators ranging from 8 to 17 in the various processes of land degradation. Among the most important indicators identified as affecting land degradation and desertification risk were rain seasonality, slope gradient, plant cover, rate of land abandonment, land-use intensity, and the level of policy implementation.

The use of artrofoon in the therapy of disorders of the paraarticular apparatus.

In 30 patients with periarthritis of the shoulder joint, therapy with artrofoon relives pain and increases movement range; these effects were comparable with those produced by nonsteroidal antiinflammatory preparations. No changes in blood, urine, and ECG parameters were noted. No side effects requiring artrofoon withdrawal were recorded. In the control group, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory preparations were withdrawn in 3 patients, in whom symptoms of gastritis developed.

[Periarthritis of the shoulder joint: variants of the course and treatment with artrofoon].

AIM: To compare efficacy of shoulder joint periarthritis (SJP) treatment with artrofoon vs non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). MATERIAL AND METHODS: SJP patients of the study group (12 males, 18 females, mean age 59.4 +/- 8.9 years, the disease duration 6.5 +/- 3.8 years) received artrofoon (1 tablet 8 times a day for 3 months, in improvement of the condition the dose was reduced to 4 tablets a day). Patients of the control group (11 males, 19 females, mean age 58.3 +/- 9.6 years, the disease duration 5.1 +/- 4.1 years) were given NSAID (primarily diclofenac in a dose 100 mg/day with subsequent dose reduction in improvement). All the patients were examined on the day of the treatment start, 2 weeks, 1 and 3 months later. The examination protocol included general examination, measurement of blood pressure, body mass, height, pain at rest and exercise, motility of the shoulder joint, subjective and objective efficacy and tolerance of the drugs. Total blood count, biochemical blood analysis, urine test, ECG, x-ray, ultrasound investigation of the joint were performed before and after therapy. RESULTS: The majority of the patients from both groups experienced nocturnal pain relief, artrofoon relived also pain at the joint movement. Significant objective and subjective responses were registered in 15 and 14, partial response--in 10 and 12 patients of the study group, respectively, no response--in 5 and 4 patients, respectively. In the controls, the above degree of the response was in 9 and 12, 18 and 16, 3 and 2 patients, respectively. Negative effects of the treatments were not seen. CONCLUSION: SJP treatment with artrofoon is effective. It relieves pain, improves motility of the joint, normalizes mental and somatic status of the patients.

[Structure of osteoarthrosis diseases and the problem of concomitant diseases].

AIM: To study pattern of osteoarthrosis (OA) morbidity, OA age and gender characteristics; to analyse affection of the para-articular tissues in gonarthrosis (GA), GA concomitant diseases in outpatient settings. MATERIAL AND METHODS: OA detection and concomitant diseases were studied in the outpatient department with computer informative system. ICD (10 revision) was used in classification. Results. OA morbidity was 6.2%. Male to female ratio was 1:2.6. Incidence rate of paraarticular tissue lesions in exacerbation of GA rose 2.5 times. In GA patients concomitant diseases were registered 1.7 times more frequently than in other outpatients, while obesity, hypertension, ischemic heart disease occurred 2 times more frequently. CONCLUSION: OA as disease of accumulation was confirmed in older patients. Old age conditioned more frequent concomitant diseases. This determines polymorbidity of clinical manifestations and requires an individual approach to the patients.

The influence of the probability of random performance of a reaction to be developed on the rate of formation of an instrumental reflex.

An instrumental defense reflex of pedal pressing during the action of a conditional signal (light) was developed in rats. The process of learning given a varying probability of the random performance of the instrumental reaction, p(a), which depends in particular on the duration of the intervals between the action of the conditional stimulus, was studied. It was shown that the rate of formation of a conditioned reflex is higher for p(a) = 0.25 than for p(a) = 0.05. The rate of formation of the conditioned reflex also depends on the frequency of the positive reinforcement of the correct reactions (from 50 to 100%). With a high p(a), the rate of formation of the reflex in question does not depend on the frequency of reinforcement of the positive responses; a feedback relationship is observed in the case of a low p(a). The hypothesis is advanced that not only does the behavior itself change the probability of contact with the external object but the original (a priori) probability substantially influences the formation of the behavior as well.

[Systemic mechanisms of advanced reflection of probability events in disease]. / Sistemnye mekhanismy operezhaiushchego otrazheniia veroiatnykh sobytii v usloviiakh patologii.

Using the systems approach, the paper considers the nodal mechanisms and the value of advanced reflection of the reality (a warning response) at different levels of vital activity in health and disease. It is suggested that a warning response retains in disease, though the advanced reflection may be transformed depending on the severity of the body's disorders and the efficiency of performance of functional systems. In disease, there are three types of the systems: 1) usual functional systems with the same properties of warning responses as those in health which prevent lesions and their progression, 2) systems whose performance result is both useful and adverse, 3) functional systems whose performance result leads to impaired vital activity or contributes to their generalization (abnormal systems). The mechanisms of dual and damaging effects of the systems are disclosed. The author concludes that in disease even in a dying process, there are only changes in the level and, occasionally, nature of a warning response, but it preserves until a person is alive.

[Basic trends in general human pathology and principles of its teaching in higher medical education]. / Osnovnye napravleniia obshchei patologii cheloveka i printsipy eë prepodovaniia v meditsinskikh VUZakh.

The paper considers the current trends in the development of biological and medical sciences: their subject, tasks, methods, and place of General Human Pathology among other subjects, its value for the clinical discipline. It defines and analyzes the most topical and disputable directions of General Human Pathology, primarily including those which form the bases for the pathology theory. Arguments are advanced for the necessity of introducing the subject General Pathology of Man into the curriculum of higher medical educational establishments at various faculties. Consideration is given to the specific features of this subject teaching at the faculty training researchers and research pedagogical personnel, at the Pharmaceutical and Higher Nurse Training Faculties of the I. M. Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy. A proposal is given to consider and to discuss the most important problems of General Pathology and its teaching, which are listed in the paper.

[Systems analysis of behavior in conditions of environmental uncertainty]. / Sistemnyi analiz povedeniia v usloviiakh neopredelennosti okruzhaiushchei sredy.

The paper deals with the organizational features of the functional behavior system under environmental uncertainty conditions (probability training processes, formation of a conditioned reflex at a low intensity of a signal stimulus), as well as with the probability pattern of reinforcement. It shows that the experimental findings are not always in full conformity with the classical behavior act model developed by P. K. Anokhin. The main difficulty is associated with the fact that the above model in its systems content considers a behavioral act merely alone whereas while teaching under great uncertainty conditions, correction of the programme of actions is possible only when many search reactions are simultaneously analyzed. While making a systems analysis of behavioral performance, it is proposed to use a concept of probability decision to alter the programme of action, as well as an idea of memory buffer (results of search reactions). The proposed approach allows one to describe various training conditions, and it operates as the Anokhin model in a specific case. The organizational features of the functional system of behavior under great uncertainty conditions should be taken into account while specifying the informational mechanism responsible for systems quantization of behavior. The above mechanism of the comprehensive evaluation of the positive and negative results of the performed pattern of behavioral acts can be used to explain the discreteness of an action in the programme alteration process when the same quantum of behavior is implemented.

[Behavioral activity in an uncertain environment (the methodological characteristics of an experimental study)]. / Povedencheskaia deiatel'nost' v usloviiakh neopredelennosti sredy (metodicheskie osobennosti éksperimental'nogo izucheniia).

A fundamental resemblance between processes of probabilitive training and conditional reflex forming exist wile using lowintensive signal stimulus and probabilitive way of confirmation. A base of intrinsic unity of these methodical variants is a complicated way of elicitation of bond between signal stimulus and confirmation, absence of one-way interpreted information about an environment presuming probabilitive estimate using. In this case informative interaction between an individual and subjectively accidental environment takes place or the same, a process of subjectively probabilitive training. Accordingly probabilitive training is a dinamic process of training under conditions of subjective uncertainty based probabilitive estimate application and feedback elements existence.

[The patterns of behavioral activity in an uncertain environment]. / Zakonomernosti povedencheskoi deiatel'nosti v usloviiakh neopredelennosti sredy.

Great amount of parameters of education regime in uncertain habitat's conditions is the main reason of contradictions in the present empirical data. It is reasonable to fulfill system analyses of conformity in natural laws of behavior in the framework of conventional-reflector experiment, taking into consideration that the grade of the habitat's uncertainty is mainly characterized by variation of the signal stimulus intensity, as well as the with probability of support. Existing statements and conceptions of organization peculiarities of behavior are regarded with absence of conventional stimulus (probabilistic education), acting of parathreshold and of suprathreshold intensity. It is marked, that despite of the already found conformities in natural laws, complex influence of factors of the probabilistic habitat on forming of behavior is not studied completely, there is only rough localization of optimum and pessimum zones in the parameter spaces, which influence education, there are no confident ways of prognosis and optimization of activity of the tested ones. Ways of further analyses of peculiarities of the system organization of behavior, in conditions of different grades of the habitat's uncertainty are suggested.

[The theory of functional systems and purposeful behavior]. / Teoriia funktsional'nykh sistem i tselenapravlennoe povedenie.

The role of probability forecasting in the purposive behavior under conditions of subjective uncertainty is considered in terms of the theory of functional systems. Participation of the probability forecasting in the afferent synthesis, goal formation, formation of the acceptor of action result and action program, and, finally, in the action program actualization is substantiated. The model of behavior under conditions of subjective uncertainty is advanced. It includes all the classical elements of the model of behavioral act developed by P.K. Anokhin. In order to take into account the probability aspects of behavior, the role of probability forecasting is emphasized at every stage of the system functioning. In addition to the classical elements, two novel components are introduced. These are the "memory buffer" (results of searching reactions) and the apparatus of probability decisions about changes in the action program. By the memory buffer an apparatus is meant, which gathers and stores the information about the results of many behavioral acts performed during the actualization of the action program. This information is used in the process of making a probability decision as whether to alter or not the action program after each specific behavioral act. Such an approach integrates the probability forecasting and the theory of functional systems. The theory becomes universal, i.e., applicable not only to deterministic but also to probabilistic environments.

[Evaluation of the role of the adaptive result in the theory of the functional systems]. / Otsenka roli prisposobitel'nogo rezul'tata v teorii funktsional'nykh sistem.

The fundamental of the theory of the functional systems, i.e., the concept of the useful adaptive result as a universal system-forming factor is considered. It is suggested that the adaptive result is not system-forming in behaviors actualized exclusively due to activity of systems developed earlier. It is argued that positive mutations may serve as the system-forming factor for hereditary determined behavioral forms. In all other cases of goal-directed behavior (except conditioning) the aim of performance as a model of the future result plays the decisive role. Only in conditioning the classical concept of the system-forming role of the adaptive result seems to be undeniable. The refined ideas about the mechanisms of formation of the functional systems may be useful in analysis of a number of animal and human functions (learning, emotional stress, neuroses, etc.).

[The dependence of the rate of learning on the probability of the random performance of an acquired reaction under different regimens of aversive reinforcement in rats]. / Zavisimost' skorosti obucheniia ot veroiatnosti sluchainogo vypolneniia vyrabatyvaemoi reaktsii pri razlichnykh rezhimakh aversivnogo podkrepleniia u krys.

Learning of rats in the process of elaboration of instrumental conditioned reflex takes place much faster at the probability of random fulfillment of correct reaction (PRCR) equal to 0.25 and 0.125 than at PRCR 0.5 and 0.05. Decrease of the frequency of positive reinforcements of correct reactions from 100 to 25% does not influence the speed of learning at PRCR 0.25 and 0.125, however significantly retards the process of learning at PRCR 0.05. There exist optimum and pessimum for learning PRCR values at different regimes of reinforcement.

[Influence of the probability of the random performance of an acquired reaction on the rate of the formation of an instrumental reflex]. / Vliianie veroiatnosti sluchainogo vypolneniia vyrabatyvaemoi reaktsii na skorost' formirovaniia instrumental'nogo refleksa.

Instrumental reflex formation in rats takes place more rapidly at high probability of random performance of instrumental reaction to light; however, it does not depend on the frequency of correct responses positive reinforcements (from 50 to 100%). In case of low probability, the learning process sharply slows down at 50% reinforcement of correct responses in comparison with 100% one.

[Methodological approaches of I.V. Davydovskii from the standpoint of the pathophysiologist]. / Metodologicheskie podkhody I.V. Davydovskogo s pozitsii patofiziologa.

I.V. Davydovsky's principles of etiology, pathogenesis and disease are, in fact, biological concept of the theory of pathology. The main point of this concept is consideration of general pathological processes (regeneration, inflammation, thrombosis, immunity, fever, etc.) as adaptive natural-historical events the importance of which for an individual may vary in a wide range. A prospective direction in further development of I.V. Davydovsky's concept is the study of the role of regulation system at various levels in the storage of genetic information and its realization. This determines the degree of usefulness of these adaptive processes.

[Heart function and the mechanisms of its regulation in modelling adaptation to hypoxia by 2,4-dinitrophenol administration]. / Funktsiia serdtsa i nekotorye mekhanizmy ee reguliatsii pri modelirovanii adaptatsii k gipoksii vvedeniem 2,4-dinitrofenola.

Energy deficiency caused by 2,4-dinitrophenol (2,4-DNP), stimulates cardiac activity, increases noradrenaline (NA) content in the heart, but decreases the latter's adrenoreactivity. The removal of stellate ganglia reduces myocardial hyperfunction and prevents the rise of the cardiac NA content. Increasing the dose of 2,4-DNP inhibits cardiac activity and reduces cardiac NA and myocardial adrenoreactivity. Prolonged 2,4-DNP administration increases resistance to hypoxia in rats. Ten-day exposure to 2,4-DNP enhances the stability of the cardiac NA level and myocardial adrenoreactivity. By day 20, the reserve potential of myocardial contractility is enhanced, but the adaptive changes in the myocardial neuronic apparatus disappear. When circulation is stimulated, adaptive changes in sympathetic neurons and the myocardium develop and disappear after a certain pattern under the effect of energy deficiency.

[The dynamics of thyrotoxic heart development in experimental thyrotoxicosis]. / Dinamika razvitiia tireotoksicheskogo serdtsa pri éksperimental'nom tireotoksikoze

Thyreoidin intoxication was modelled in 12 rabbits, 39 rabbits served as controls. ON THE 3RD, 7TH AND 14TH DAY OF THE EXPERIMENT PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS WERE CARRIED OUT IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE FUNCTION OF THE LEFT VENTRICLE OF THE HEART AND CONTENTS OF ADRENALIN AND NORADRENALIN IN THE MYOCARDIUM. At the same periods an electron microscopy investigation of the contractile myocardium of the left ventricle of the heart with subsequent quanitative analysis of electronograms were carried out. It was shown that clear-cut changes in the ultrastructure of the contractile myocardium and in the heart function, accompanied with accumulation of sympathetic amines in the cardiac muscle, take place already at the early periods of the experiment. The changes in the muscle cell ultrastructure were caused by a hyperfunction of the retained organells, mitochondria in particular, due to the weakening of conjugated respiration and phosphorilation processes, as well as to the exclusion from functioning of a part of mitochondria and to an increase in the loading on the myocardium. As a result, energy deficit of the cardiac muscle originated and continued to increase. Because of inclusion of the compensatory-adaptative mechanisms, which reached their maximum by the 14th day of the experiment, the processes of plastics and energy formation at the expense of hyperplasia and hypertrophy of mitochondria, were drastically intensified, which allowed the heart to function under conditions of the increasing thyreoidin intoxication.

[Morphologic basis for several myocardial metabolic disorders in the presence of respiration uncoupled from phosphorylation]. / Morfologicheskaia osnova nekotorykh narushenii metabolzma miokarda pri razobshchenii dyhaniia i fosforilirovaniia

It was experimentally established that the destruction of mitochondria due to a reduction of ATP production and to their compensatory hyperfunction under energy defecit is underlying some disorders in the myocardial metabolism caused by 2,4-DNP intoxication. Energy deficit results in K+ metabolism disorders and the related acetylcholine synthesis which predisopses the changes in the cardiac function and still further increases the myocardial requirements of energy. The bio-energy disorders develop in a vicious circle manner, and when the intoxication increases, it inevitably results in energy depletion and cardiac arrest.

[Role of carbon dioxide in the maintenance of positive changes in myocardial metabolism and the mechanisms of cardiac regulation after physical exercise training]. / Znachenie dvuokisi ugleroda v sokhranenii polozhitel'nykh izmenenii metabolizma miokarda i mekhanizmov reguliatsii serdtsa posle trenirovki fizicheskim napriazheniem.

Four-percent carbon dioxide added to the gaseous medium during swimming exercise under normoxia increased animals' working capacity, myocardial contractility, the stability of myocardial acetylcholine store and cardiac choline reactivity, and contributed to post-exercise retention of those changes. Three months' training under the same conditions caused no further increment in adaptation parameters, while potentialities of the parasympathetic regulation mechanism even declined, and the acquired changes were promptly lost upon discontinuation of exercise. Mechanisms of action and significance of carbon dioxide in the formation of adaptation and after-effect circulatory stability are discussed.