The Arabidopsis cyclophilin CYP18-1 facilitates PRP18 dephosphorylation and the splicing of introns retained under heat stress.

In plants, heat stress induces changes in alternative splicing, including intron retention; these events can rapidly alter proteins or downregulate protein activity, producing nonfunctional isoforms or inducing nonsense-mediated decay of messenger RNA (mRNA). Nuclear cyclophilins (CYPs) are accessory proteins in the spliceosome complexes of multicellular eukaryotes. However, whether plant CYPs are involved in pre-mRNA splicing remain unknown. Here, we found that Arabidopsis thaliana CYP18-1 is necessary for the efficient removal of introns that are retained in response to heat stress during germination. CYP18-1 interacts with Step II splicing factors (PRP18a, PRP22, and SWELLMAP1) and associates with the U2 and U5 small nuclear RNAs in response to heat stress. CYP18-1 binds to phospho-PRP18a, and increasing concentrations of CYP18-1 are associated with increasing dephosphorylation of PRP18a. Furthermore, interaction and protoplast transfection assays revealed that CYP18-1 and the PP2A-type phosphatase PP2A B'η co-regulate PRP18a dephosphorylation. RNA-seq and RT-qPCR analysis confirmed that CYP18-1 is essential for splicing introns that are retained under heat stress. Overall, we reveal the mechanism of action by which CYP18-1 activates the dephosphorylation of PRP18 and show that CYP18-1 is crucial for the efficient splicing of retained introns and rapid responses to heat stress in plants.

WUSCHEL controls genotype-dependent shoot regeneration capacity in potato.

Plant cells can reprogram their fate. The combinatorial actions of auxin and cytokinin dedifferentiate somatic cells to regenerate organs, which can develop into individual plants. As transgenic plants can be generated from genetically modified somatic cells through these processes, cell fate transition is an unavoidable step in crop genetic engineering. However, regeneration capacity closely depends on the genotype, and the molecular events underlying these variances remain elusive. In the present study, we demonstrated that WUSCHEL (WUS)-a homeodomain transcription factor-determines regeneration capacity in different potato (Solanum tuberosum) genotypes. Comparative analysis of shoot regeneration efficiency and expression of genes related to cell fate transition revealed that WUS expression coincided with regeneration rate in different potato genotypes. Moreover, in a high-efficiency genotype, WUS silencing suppressed shoot regeneration. Meanwhile, in a low-efficiency genotype, regeneration could be enhanced through the supplementation of a different type of cytokinin that promoted WUS expression. Computational modeling of cytokinin receptor-ligand interactions suggested that the docking pose of cytokinins mediated by hydrogen bonding with the core residues may be pivotal for WUS expression and shoot regeneration in potatoes. Furthermore, our whole-genome sequencing analysis revealed core sequence variations in the WUS promoters that differentiate low- and high-efficiency genotypes. The present study revealed that cytokinin responses, particularly WUS expression, determine shoot regeneration efficiency in different potato genotypes.

Ethylene signals modulate the survival of Arabidopsis leaf explants.

BACKGROUND: Leaf explants are major materials in plant tissue cultures. Incubation of detached leaves on phytohormone-containing media, which is an important process for producing calli and regenerating plants, change their cell fate. Although hormone signaling pathways related to cell fate transition have been widely studied, other molecular and physiological events occurring in leaf explants during this process remain largely unexplored. RESULTS: Here, we identified that ethylene signals modulate expression of pathogen resistance genes and anthocyanin accumulation in leaf explants, affecting their survival during culture. Anthocyanins accumulated in leaf explants, but were not observed near the wound site. Ethylene signaling mutant analysis revealed that ethylene signals are active and block anthocyanin accumulation in the wound site. Moreover, expression of defense-related genes increased, particularly near the wound site, implying that ethylene induces defense responses possibly by blocking pathogenesis via wounding. We also found that anthocyanin accumulation in non-wounded regions is required for drought resistance in leaf explants. CONCLUSIONS: Our study revealed the key roles of ethylene in the regulation of defense gene expression and anthocyanin biosynthesis in leaf explants. Our results suggest a survival strategy of detached leaves, which can be applied to improve the longevity of explants during tissue culture.

Nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat network underlies nonhost resistance of pepper against the Irish potato famine pathogen Phytophthora infestans.

Nonhost resistance (NHR) is a robust plant immune response against non-adapted pathogens. A number of nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NLR) proteins that recognize non-adapted pathogens have been identified, although the underlying molecular mechanisms driving robustness of NHR are still unknown. Here, we screened 57 effectors of the potato late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans in nonhost pepper (Capsicum annuum) to identify avirulence effector candidates. Selected effectors were tested against 436 genome-wide cloned pepper NLRs, and we identified multiple functional NLRs that recognize P. infestans effectors and confer disease resistance in the Nicotiana benthamiana as a surrogate system. The identified NLRs were homologous to known NLRs derived from wild potatoes that recognize P. infestans effectors such as Avr2, Avrblb1, Avrblb2, and Avrvnt1. The identified CaRpi-blb2 is a homologue of Rpi-blb2, recognizes Avrblb2 family effectors, exhibits feature of lineage-specifically evolved gene in microsynteny and phylogenetic analyses, and requires pepper-specific NRC (NLR required for cell death)-type helper NLR for proper function. Moreover, CaRpi-blb2-mediated hypersensitive response and blight resistance were more tolerant to suppression by the PITG_15 278 than those mediated by Rpi-blb2. Combined results indicate that pepper has stacked multiple NLRs recognizing effectors of non-adapted P. infestans, and these NLRs could be more tolerant to pathogen-mediated immune suppression than NLRs derived from the host plants. Our study suggests that NLRs derived from nonhost plants have potential as untapped resources to develop crops with durable resistance against fast-evolving pathogens by stacking the network of nonhost NLRs into susceptible host plants.

Nuclear OsFKBP20-1b maintains SR34 stability and promotes the splicing of retained introns upon ABA exposure in rice.

Alternative splicing (AS) is a critical means by which plants respond to changes in the environment, but few splicing factors contributing to AS have been reported and functionally characterized in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Here, we explored the function and molecular mechanism of the spliceosome-associated protein OsFKBP20-1b during AS. We determined the AS landscape of wild-type and osfkbp20-1b knockout plants upon abscisic acid (ABA) treatment by transcriptome deep sequencing. To capture the dynamics of translating intron-containing mRNAs, we blocked transcription with cordycepin and performed polysome profiling. We also analyzed whether OsFKBP20-1b and the splicing factors OsSR34 and OsSR45 function together in AS using protoplast transfection assays. We show that OsFKBP20-1b interacts with OsSR34 and regulates its stability, suggesting a role as a chaperone-like protein in the spliceosome. OsFKBP20-1b facilitates the splicing of mRNAs with retained introns after ABA treatment; some of these mRNAs are translatable and encode functional transcriptional regulators of stress-responsive genes. In addition, interacting proteins, OsSR34 and OsSR45, regulate the splicing of the same retained introns as OsFKBP20-1b after ABA treatment. Our findings reveal that spliceosome-associated immunophilin functions in alternative RNA splicing in rice by positively regulating the splicing of retained introns to limit ABA response.

The spliceophilin CYP18-2 is mainly involved in the splicing of retained introns under heat stress in Arabidopsis.

Peptidyl-prolyl isomerase-like 1 (PPIL1) is associated with the human spliceosome complex. However, its function in pre-mRNA splicing remains unclear. In this study, we show that Arabidopsis thaliana CYCLOPHILIN 18-2 (AtCYP18-2), a PPIL1 homolog, plays an essential role in heat tolerance by regulating pre-mRNA splicing. Under heat stress conditions, AtCYP18-2 expression was upregulated in mature plants and GFP-tagged AtCYP18-2 redistributed to nuclear and cytoplasmic puncta. We determined that AtCYP18-2 interacts with several spliceosome complex BACT components in nuclear puncta and is primarily associated with the small nuclear RNAs U5 and U6 in response to heat stress. The AtCYP18-2 loss-of-function allele cyp18-2 engineered by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing exhibited a hypersensitive phenotype to heat stress relative to the wild type. Moreover, global transcriptome profiling showed that the cyp18-2 mutation affects alternative splicing of heat stress-responsive genes under heat stress conditions, particularly intron retention (IR). The abundance of most intron-containing transcripts of a subset of genes essential for thermotolerance decreased in cyp18-2 compared to the wild type. Furthermore, the intron-containing transcripts of two heat stress-related genes, HEAT SHOCK PROTEIN 101 (HSP101) and HEAT SHOCK FACTOR A2 (HSFA2), produced functional proteins. HSP101-IR-GFP localization was responsive to heat stress, and HSFA2-III-IR interacted with HSF1 and HSP90.1 in plant cells. Our findings reveal that CYP18-2 functions as a splicing factor within the BACT spliceosome complex and is crucial for ensuring the production of adequate levels of alternatively spliced transcripts to enhance thermotolerance.

Wound-induced signals regulate root organogenesis in Arabidopsis explants.

BACKGROUND: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and calcium ions (Ca2+) are representative signals of plant wound responses. Wounding triggers cell fate transition in detached plant tissues and induces de novo root organogenesis. While the hormonal regulation of root organogenesis has been widely studied, the role of early wound signals including ROS and Ca2+ remains largely unknown. RESULTS: We identified that ROS and Ca2+ are required for de novo root organogenesis, but have different functions in Arabidopsis explants. The inhibition of the ROS and Ca2+ signals delayed root development in detached leaves. Examination of the auxin signaling pathways indicated that ROS and Ca2+ did not affect auxin biosynthesis and transport in explants. Additionally, the expression of key genes related to auxin signals during root organogenesis was not significantly affected by the inhibition of ROS and Ca2+ signals. The addition of auxin partially restored the suppression of root development by the ROS inhibitor; however, auxin supplementation did not affect root organogenesis in Ca2+-depleted explants. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that, while both ROS and Ca2+ are key molecules, at least in part of the auxin signals acts downstream of ROS signaling, and Ca2+ acts downstream of auxin during de novo root organogenesis in leaf explants.

OsFKBP20-1b interacts with the splicing factor OsSR45 and participates in the environmental stress response at the post-transcriptional level in rice.

Sessile plants have evolved distinct mechanisms to respond and adapt to adverse environmental conditions through diverse mechanisms including RNA processing. While the role of RNA processing in the stress response is well understood for Arabidopsis thaliana, limited information is available for rice (Oryza sativa). Here, we show that OsFKBP20-1b, belonging to the immunophilin family, interacts with the splicing factor OsSR45 in both nuclear speckles and cytoplasmic foci, and plays an essential role in post-transcriptional regulation of abiotic stress response. The expression of OsFKBP20-1b was highly upregulated under various abiotic stresses. Moreover genetic analysis revealed that OsFKBP20-1b positively affected transcription and pre-mRNA splicing of stress-responsive genes under abiotic stress conditions. In osfkbp20-1b loss-of-function mutants, the expression of stress-responsive genes was downregulated, while that of their splicing variants was increased. Conversely, in plants overexpressing OsFKBP20-1b, the expression of the same stress-responsive genes was strikingly upregulated under abiotic stress. In vivo experiments demonstrated that OsFKBP20-1b directly maintains protein stability of OsSR45 splicing factor. Furthermore, we found that the plant-specific OsFKBP20-1b gene has uniquely evolved as a paralogue only in some Poaceae species. Together, our findings suggest that OsFKBP20-1b-mediated RNA processing contributes to stress adaptation in rice.

Complete genome sequence and genome organization of scorzonera virus A (SCoVA), a novel member of the genus Potyvirus.

The complete genomic sequence of scorzonera virus A (SCoVA) from a Scorzonera austriaca Willd. plant in South Korea was determined by high-throughput sequencing and confirmed by Sanger sequencing. The SCoVA genome contains 9867 nucleotides, excluding the 3'-terminal poly(A) tail. The SCoVA genome structure is typical of potyviruses and contains a single open reading frame encoding a large putative polyprotein of 3168 amino acids. Pairwise comparison analysis of the complete genome and polyprotein sequences of SCoVA with those of other potyviruses showed that they shared the highest nucleotide and amino acid sequences identity (54.47% and 49.57%, respectively) with those of lettuce mosaic virus (GenBank accession number KJ161185). Phylogenetic analysis of the amino acid sequence of the polyprotein confirmed that SCoVA belongs to the genus Potyvirus. These findings suggest that SCoVA should be considered a novel member of the genus Potyvirus, family Potyviridae.

Complete genome sequence of platycodon closterovirus 1, a novel putative member of the genus Closterovirus.

A new member of the genus Closterovirus was detected in Platycodon grandiflorus using high-throughput RNA sequencing analysis. The complete genome sequence of this new virus isolate, tentatively named "platycodon closterovirus 1" (PlaCV1), comprises 16,771 nucleotides with nine predicted open reading frames (ORFs) having the typical closterovirus genome organization. PlaCV1 shares 37%-50% nucleotide sequence identity with other known closterovirus genome sequences. The putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), heat shock protein 70-like protein (HSP70h), viral heat shock protein 90-like protein (HSP90h), minor coat protein (CPm), and coat protein (CP) show 47-68%, 39-66%, 24-52%, 21-57%, and 16-35% amino acid sequence identity, respectively, to homologous proteins in previously identified closteroviruses, suggesting that it represents a distinct, new species in the genus. Phylogenetic analysis of HSP70h sequences places PlaCV1 alongside other members of the genus Closterovirus in the family Closteroviridae. To our knowledge, this study is the first report of the complete genome sequence of PlaCV1 infecting P. grandiflorus in the Republic of Korea.

Complete genome sequence of artemisia virus B, a new polerovirus infecting Artemisia princeps in South Korea.

The complete genome sequence of a new polerovirus found naturally infecting Artemisia princeps, artemisia virus B (ArtVB), was determined using high-throughput sequencing. The ArtVB genome comprises 6,141 nucleotides and contains six putative open reading frames (ORF0 to ORF5) with a genome structure typical of poleroviruses. A multiple sequence alignment showed that the complete ArtVB genome shares 50.98% nucleotide sequence identity with ixeridium yellow mottle virus 1 (IxYMaV-1, GenBank accession no. KT868949). ArtVB shares the highest amino acid sequence identity in P0 and P3-P5 (21.54%-51.69%) with other known poleroviruses. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that ArtVB should be considered a member of a new species within the genus Polerovirus, family Luteoviridae.

SUMO Modification of OsFKBP20-1b Is Integral to Proper Pre-mRNA Splicing upon Heat Stress in Rice.

OsFKBP20-1b, a plant-specific cyclophilin protein, has been implicated to regulate pre-mRNA splicing under stress conditions in rice. Here, we demonstrated that OsFKBP20-1b is SUMOylated in a reconstituted SUMOylation system in E.coli and in planta, and that the SUMOylation-coupled regulation was associated with enhanced protein stability using a less SUMOylated OsFKBP20-1b mutant (5KR_OsFKBP20-1b). Furthermore, OsFKBP20-1b directly interacted with OsSUMO1 and OsSUMO2 in the nucleus and cytoplasm, whereas the less SUMOylated 5KR_OsFKBP20-1b mutant had an impaired interaction with OsSUMO1 and 2 in the cytoplasm but not in the nucleus. Under heat stress, the abundance of an OsFKBP20-1b-GFP fusion protein was substantially increased in the nuclear speckles and cytoplasmic foci, whereas the heat-responsiveness was remarkably diminished in the presence of the less SUMOylated 5KR_OsFKBP20-1b-GFP mutant. The accumulation of endogenous SUMOylated OsFKBP20-1b was enhanced by heat stress in planta. Moreover, 5KR_OsFKBP20-1b was not sufficiently associated with the U snRNAs in the nucleus as a spliceosome component. A protoplast transfection assay indicated that the low SUMOylation level of 5KR_OsFKBP20-1b led to inaccurate alternative splicing and transcription under heat stress. Thus, our results suggest that OsFKBP20-1b is post-translationally regulated by SUMOylation, and the modification is crucial for proper RNA processing in response to heat stress in rice.

Nitrogen Signaling Genes and SOC1 Determine the Flowering Time in a Reciprocal Negative Feedback Loop in Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L.) Based on CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Mutagenesis of Multiple BrSOC1 Homologs.

Precise flowering timing is critical for the plant life cycle. Here, we examined the molecular mechanisms and regulatory network associated with flowering in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.) by comparative transcriptome profiling of two Chinese cabbage inbred lines, "4004" (early bolting) and "50" (late bolting). RNA-Seq and quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qPCR) analyses showed that two positive nitric oxide (NO) signaling regulator genes, nitrite reductase (BrNIR) and nitrate reductase (BrNIA), were up-regulated in line "50" with or without vernalization. In agreement with the transcription analysis, the shoots in line "50" had substantially higher nitrogen levels than those in "4004". Upon vernalization, the flowering repressor gene Circadian 1 (BrCIR1) was significantly up-regulated in line "50", whereas the flowering enhancer genes named SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANCE 1 homologs (BrSOC1s) were substantially up-regulated in line "4004". CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis in Chinese cabbage demonstrated that the BrSOC1-1/1-2/1-3 genes were involved in late flowering, and their expression was mutually exclusive with that of the nitrogen signaling genes. Thus, we identified two flowering mechanisms in Chinese cabbage: a reciprocal negative feedback loop between nitrogen signaling genes (BrNIA1 and BrNIR1) and BrSOC1s to control flowering time and positive feedback control of the expression of BrSOC1s.

Golgi-localized cyclophilin 21 proteins negatively regulate ABA signalling via the peptidyl prolyl isomerase activity during early seedling development.

KEY MESSAGE: Plant possesses particular Golgi-resident cyclophilin 21 proteins (CYP21s) and the catalytic isomerase activities have a negative effect on ABA signalling gene expression during early seedling development. Cyclophilins (CYPs) are essential for diverse cellular process, as these catalyse a rate-limiting step in protein folding. Although Golgi proteomics in Arabidopsis thaliana suggests the existence of several CYPs in the Golgi apparatus, only one putative Golgi-resident CYP protein has been reported in rice (Oryza sativa L.; OsCYP21-4). Here, we identified the Golgi-resident CYP21 family genes and analysed their molecular characteristics in Arabidopsis and rice. The CYP family genes (CYP21-1, CYP21-2, CYP21-3, and CYP21-4) are plant-specific, and their appearance and copy numbers differ among plant species. CYP21-1 and CYP21-4 are common to all angiosperms, whereas CYP21-2 and CYP21-3 evolved in the Malvidae subclass. Furthermore, all CYP21 proteins localize to cis-Golgi, trans-Golgi or both cis- and trans-Golgi membranes in plant cells. Additionally, based on the structure, enzymatic function, and topological orientation in Golgi membranes, CYP21 proteins are divided into two groups. Genetic analysis revealed that Group I proteins (CYP21-1 and CYP21-2) exhibit peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) activity and regulate seed germination and seedling growth and development by affecting the expression levels of abscisic acid signalling genes. Thus, we identified the Golgi-resident CYPs and demonstrated that their PPIase activities are required for early seedling growth and development in higher plants.

PIN-mediated polar auxin transport facilitates root-obstacle avoidance.

Plants sense mechanical stimuli to recognise nearby obstacles and change their growth patterns to adapt to the surrounding environment. When roots encounter an obstacle, they rapidly bend away from the impenetrable surface and find the edge of the barrier. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying root-obstacle avoidance are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that PIN-FORMED (PIN)-mediated polar auxin transport facilitates root bending during obstacle avoidance. We analysed two types of bending after roots touched barriers. In auxin receptor mutants, the rate of root movement during first bending was largely delayed. Gravity-oriented second bending was also disturbed in these mutants. The reporter assays showed that asymmetrical auxin responses occurred in the roots during obstacle avoidance. Pharmacological analysis suggested that polar auxin transport mediates local auxin accumulation. We found that PINs are required for auxin-assisted root bending during obstacle avoidance. We propose that rapid root movement during obstacle avoidance is not just a passive but an active bending completed through polar auxin transport. Our findings suggest that auxin plays a role in thigmotropism during plant-obstacle interactions.

Complete genome sequence and genome organization of achyranthes virus A, a novel member of the genus Potyvirus.

The complete genomic sequence of achyranthes virus A (AcVA), from an Achyranthes bidentata Blume plant in South Korea, was determined. The genomic RNA has 9491 nucleotides (nt), excluding the 3'-terminal poly(A) tail and contains an open reading frame typical of members of the genus Potyvirus, family Potyviridae, encoding a large putative polyprotein of 3103 amino acids (aa). Pairwise comparisons showed that the AcVA sequence shares 47.81-57.78% nt sequence identity at the complete genome level, 41.89-56.41% aa sequence identity at the polyprotein level, and 50-63.8% aa sequence identity at the coat protein level with other members of genus Potyvirus. These pairwise comparison values are below the species demarcation cutoff for the family Potyviridae. Our results therefore suggest that this virus should be regarded as a novel member of the genus Potyvirus, tentatively named "achyranthes virus A".

The Synergistic Effect of Co-Treatment of Methyl Jasmonate and Cyclodextrins on Pterocarpan Production in Sophora flavescens Cell Cultures.

Pterocarpans are derivatives of isoflavonoids, found in many species of the family Fabaceae. Sophora flavescens Aiton is a promising traditional Asian medicinal plant. Plant cell suspension cultures represent an excellent source for the production of valuable secondary metabolites. Herein, we found that methyl jasmonate (MJ) elicited the activation of pterocarpan biosynthetic genes in cell suspension cultures of S. flavescens and enhanced the accumulation of pterocarpans, producing mainly trifolirhizin, trifolirhizin malonate, and maackiain. MJ application stimulated the expression of structural genes (PAL, C4H, 4CL, CHS, CHR, CHI, IFS, I3'H, and IFR) of the pterocarpan biosynthetic pathway. In addition, the co-treatment of MJ and methyl-ß-cyclodextrin (MeßCD) as a solubilizer exhibited a synergistic effect on the activation of the pterocarpan biosynthetic genes. The maximum level of total pterocarpan production (37.2 mg/g dry weight (DW)) was obtained on day 17 after the application of 50 µM MJ on cells. We also found that the combined treatment of cells for seven days with MJ and MeßCD synergistically induced the pterocarpan production (trifolirhizin, trifolirhizin malonate, and maackiain) in the cells (58 mg/g DW) and culture medium (222.7 mg/L). Noteworthy, the co-treatment only stimulated the elevated extracellular production of maackiain in the culture medium, indicating its extracellular secretion; however, its glycosides (trifolirhizin and trifolirhizin malonate) were not detected in any significant amounts in the culture medium. This work provides new strategies for the pterocarpan production in plant cell suspension cultures, and shows MeßCD to be an effective solubilizer for the extracellular production of maackiain in the cell cultures of S. flavescens.

Complete genome sequence of a tentative new member of the genus Badnavirus identified in Codonopsis lanceolata.

High-throughput sequencing revealed a tentative new badnavirus infecting Codonopsis lanceolata, provisionally named Codonopsis vein clearing virus (CoVCV). The complete 8,112-nt CoVCV genomic DNA sequence (GenBank accession: MK044821) comprises three open reading frames (ORFs) encoding conserved domains, with typical features of badnaviruses. Additionally, BLASTn searches indicated the CoVCV genome sequence is most similar to the grapevine vein clearing virus (GVCV) genome (72% identity and 46% query coverage). Moreover, the polyprotein encoded in CoVCV ORF3 is most similar to the corresponding protein of GVCV, with 60% amino acid sequence identity (89% query coverage). These results suggest that CoVCV is a new member of the genus Badnavirus in the family Caulimoviridae.

Genomic detection and molecular characterization of two distinct isolates of cycas necrotic stunt virus from Paeonia suffruticosa and Daphne odora.

Complete genome sequences of two cycas necrotic stunt virus (CNSV) isolates from Paeonia suffruticosa and Daphne odora were determined. Phylogenetic trees and pairwise comparisons using complete RNA1- and RNA2-encoded polyproteins showed that the two CNSV isolates are divergent (83.19%-89.42% in polyprotein 1 and 73.61%-85.78% in polyprotein 2). A comparative analysis based on taxonomic criteria for the species demarcation of nepoviruses confirmed that they are not new species but distinct variants. This is the first report of the complete genome sequences of CNSV detected in P. suffruticosa and D. odora, and the first report of CNSV infecting P. suffruticosa.