Prevalence of depression and associated symptoms among patients attending primary healthcare facilities: a cross-sectional study in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Depression is a prevalent mental health condition worldwide but there is limited data on its presentation and associated symptoms in primary care settings in low- and middle-income countries like Nepal. This study aims to assess the prevalence of depression, its hallmark and other associated symptoms that meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) criteria in primary healthcare facilities in Nepal. The collected information will be used to determine the content of a mobile app-based clinical guidelines for better detection and management of depression in primary care. METHODS: A total of 1,897 adult patients aged 18-91 (63.1% women) attending ten primary healthcare facilities in Jhapa, a district in eastern Nepal, were recruited for the study between August 2, 2021, and March 25, 2022. Trained research assistants conducted face-to-face interviews in private spaces before the consultation with healthcare providers. Depression symptoms, including hallmark symptoms, was assessed using the validated Nepali version of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). RESULTS: One in seven (14.5%) individuals attending primary health care facilities in Jhapa met the threshold for depression based on a validated cut-off score ( > = 10) on the PHQ-9. The most commonly reported depressive symptoms were loss of energy and sleep difficulties. Approximately 25.4% of women and 18.9% of men endorsed at least one of the two hallmark symptoms on the PHQ-9. Using a DSM-5 algorithm (at least one hallmark symptom and five or more total symptoms) to score the PHQ-9, 6.3% of women and 4.3% of men met the criteria for depression. The intra-class correlation coefficient for PHQ-9 total scores by health facility as the unit of clustering was 0.01 (95% confidence interval, 0.00-0.04). CONCLUSION: Depression symptoms are common among people attending primary healthcare facilities in Nepal. However, the most common symptoms are not the two hallmark criteria. Use of total scores on a screening tool such as the PHQ-9 risks overestimating the prevalence and generating false positive diagnoses. Compared to using cut off scores on screening tools, training health workers to first screen for hallmark criteria may increase the accuracy of identification and lead to better allocation of treatment resources.

Adolescent depression beyond DSM definition: a network analysis.

Calls for refining the understanding of depression beyond diagnostic criteria have been growing in recent years. We examined the prevalence and relevance of DSM and non-DSM depressive symptoms in two Brazilian school-based adolescent samples with two commonly used scales, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-A) and the Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ). We analyzed cross-sectional data from two similarly recruited samples of adolescents aged 14-16 years, as part of the Identifying Depression Early in Adolescence (IDEA) study in Brazil. We assessed dimensional depressive symptomatology using the PHQ-A in the first sample (n = 7720) and the MFQ in the second sample (n = 1070). We conducted network analyses to study symptom structure and centrality estimates of the two scales. Additionally, we compared centrality of items included (e.g., low mood, anhedonia) and not included in the DSM (e.g., low self-esteem, loneliness) in the MFQ. Sad mood and worthlessness items were the most central items in the network structure of the PHQ-A. In the MFQ sample, self-hatred and loneliness, two non-DSM features, were the most central items and DSM and non-DSM items in this scale formed a highly interconnected network of symptoms. Furthermore, analysis of the MFQ sample revealed DSM items not to be more frequent, severe or interconnected than non-DSM items, but rather part of a larger network of symptoms. A focus on symptoms might advance research on adolescent depression by enhancing our understanding of the disorder.

Longitudinal associations between adolescents' individualised risk for depression and inflammation in a UK cohort study.

Inflammation is associated with poor physical and mental health including major depressive disorder (MDD). Moreover, there is evidence that childhood adversity - a risk factor for MDD - becomes biologically embedded via elevated inflammation. However, the risk of developing MDD arises from multiple sources and yet there has been little investigation of the links between individuals' constellation of MDD risk and subsequent inflammation. We therefore examined associations between individual risk for MDD calculated in early adolescence and levels of inflammation six years later. We use data from the Environmental Risk (E-Risk) Longitudinal Twin Study, a nationally representative UK birth cohort of 2,232 children followed to age 18 with 93% retention. Participants' individual risk for developing future MDD was calculated at age 12 using a recently developed prediction model comprising multiple psychosocial factors. Plasma levels of three inflammation biomarkers were measured at age 18: C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and a newer biomarker, soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR), which is thought to reflect the level of systemic chronic inflammation. MDD risk scores calculated at age 12 were positively associated with levels of suPAR (but not CRP or IL-6) at age 18 after adjusting for key covariates (b = 1.70, 95% CI = 0.46 - 2.95, p = 0.007). Adolescents at high risk of MDD (risk scores ≥ 90th centile) had significantly higher mean levels of suPAR six years later than adolescents who had been identified as low risk (risk scores ≤ 10th centile) (b = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.18 - 0.64, p < 0.001). Findings support the notion that childhood psychosocial risk for MDD leads to increased levels of low-grade inflammation. If replicated in studies with repeated assessments of inflammation biomarkers throughout childhood and adolescence, these findings would support targeted interventions to reduce inflammation, as measured by suPAR, for adolescents at high risk of MDD to potentially prevent development of depression and physical health problems related to chronic inflammation.

Empowerment training to support service user involvement in mental health system strengthening in rural Ethiopia: a mixed-methods pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Increased service user involvement is recommended to improve weak mental health systems in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, involvement is rarely implemented and interventions to support involvement are sparse. In this study we evaluated the acceptability, feasibility and perceived outcomes of an empowerment and training program for service users and health professionals to facilitate service user involvement in mental health system strengthening in rural Ethiopia. METHODS: REducing Stigma among HealthcAreProvidErs (RESHAPE) is a training curriculum for service users, their caregivers and aspirational health workers, which uses PhotoVoice methodology, to prepare them in participation of mental health systems strengthening in LMICs. We delivered the RESHAPE training augmented with empowerment content developed in Ethiopia. The interactive face-to-face training was delivered to service users and caregivers (over 10 days), and health professionals (1 day) separately. The study was an uncontrolled, convergent mixed-methods design. The quantitative data consisted of process data, satisfaction questionnaire, and a retrospective pre-test survey. Qualitative data included exit and follow-up in-depth interviews with the service users. Descriptive statistics were performed for quantitative data, and qualitative data were thematically analysed. The findings were integrated through triangulation for convergent themes following analysis. RESULTS: Twelve service users, 12 caregivers and 18 health professionals were enrolled, and completed the training. Participants valued the content and delivery process; the standard of the training program met their expectations and participation led to positive gains in understanding about mental illness, stigma, service-user involvement and human rights. The qualitative findings identified positive impacts, including increased self-confidence, sense of empowerment, social - and perceived therapeutic benefits. CONCLUSIONS: We found that the RESHAPE training with added content for Ethiopia, delivered using the PhotoVoice methodology, is feasible, acceptable and of value to develop and implement training programmes which can empower service users to be involved in mental health system strengthening in this setting. Further study to assess the impact on health systems strengthening is warranted.

Tension and Other Idioms of Distress Among Slum Dwelling Young Men: A Qualitative Study of Depression in Urban Bangladesh.

In low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) it is vital to understand acceptable, comprehensive, and culturally appropriate ways of communicating about mental distress. Diagnostic terminology is rarely used, may be stigmatizing, and is subject to misinterpretation. Local terms, such as idioms of distress, can improve mental health literacy and service delivery. Our objective was to examine lived experience and coping connected to distress and depression in an under-researched population: young men from LMIC urban slums. We conducted 60 qualitative interviews with men (ages 18-29) in Bhashantek slum, Bangladesh. Themes were generated using thematic analysis and grounded theory techniques. The heart-mind (mon), mentality (manoshikota), mood (mejaj), head (matha or "brain"), and body (shorir) comprised the self-concept, and were related to sadness, hopelessness, anger, worry, and mental illness. The English word "tension" was the central idiom of distress. "Tension" existed on a continuum, from mild distress or motivational anxiety, to moderate distress including rumination and somatic complaints, to severe psychopathology including anhedonia and suicidality. Respondents connected "tension" to burnout experiences and mental illness which was summarized in an ethnopsychological model. These findings can inform culturally sensitive measurement tools and interventions that are acceptable to the community, potentially increasing engagement and enhancing therapeutic outcomes.

The History of Coordinated Specialty Care for Early Intervention in Psychosis in the United States: A Review of Effectiveness, Implementation, and Fidelity.

Coordinated Specialty Care (CSC) is a multidisciplinary team approach to providing care for young and emerging adults having their first episode of psychosis. CSC programs have expanded rapidly throughout the United States going from 12 programs in 2008 to over 160 programs a decade later. The purpose of this historical review is to document the process and conditions that led to the accelerated dissemination of these programs across the country. CSC models began in the US in the early 2000s, but nationwide expansion followed the 2008 Recovery After an Initial Schizophrenia Episode trial. As programs have grown, debates have risen about fidelity to CSC models. The challenges facing CSC programs today include lack of evidence on what are the core components of CSC and how fidelity monitoring relates to positive client outcomes.

Mind the brain gap: The worldwide distribution of neuroimaging research on adolescent depression.

Adolescents comprise one fourth of the world's population, with about 90% of them living in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The incidence of depression markedly increases during adolescence, making the disorder a leading cause of disease-related disability in this age group. However, most research on adolescent depression has been performed in high-income countries (HICs). To ascertain the extent to which this disparity operates in neuroimaging research, a systematic review of the literature was performed. A total of 148 studies were identified, with neuroimaging data available for 4,729 adolescents with depression. When stratified by income group, 122 (82%) studies originated from HICs, while 26 (18%) were conducted in LMICs, for a total of 3,705 and 1,024 adolescents with depression respectively. A positive Spearman rank correlation was observed between country per capita income and sample size (rs=0.673, p = 0.023). Our results support the previous reports showing a large disparity between the number of studies and the adolescent population per world region. Future research comparing neuroimaging findings across populations from HICs and LMICs may provide unique insights to enhance our understanding of the neurobiological processes underlying the development of depression.

Effectiveness of Group Problem Management Plus, a brief psychological intervention for adults affected by humanitarian disasters in Nepal: A cluster randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Globally, 235 million people are impacted by humanitarian emergencies worldwide, presenting increased risk of experiencing a mental disorder. Our objective was to test the effectiveness of a brief group psychological treatment delivered by trained facilitators without prior professional mental health training in a disaster-prone setting. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a cluster randomized controlled trial (cRCT) from November 25, 2018 through September 30, 2019. Participants in both arms were assessed at baseline, midline (7 weeks post-baseline, which was approximately 1 week after treatment in the experimental arm), and endline (20 weeks post-baseline, which was approximately 3 months posttreatment). The intervention was Group Problem Management Plus (PM+), a psychological treatment of 5 weekly sessions, which was compared with enhanced usual care (EUC) consisting of a family psychoeducation meeting with a referral option to primary care providers trained in mental healthcare. The setting was 72 wards (geographic unit of clustering) in eastern Nepal, with 1 PM+ group per ward in the treatment arm. Wards were eligible if they were in disaster-prone regions and residents spoke Nepali. Wards were assigned to study arms based on covariate constrained randomization. Eligible participants were adult women and men 18 years of age and older who met screening criteria for psychological distress and functional impairment. Outcomes were measured at the participant level, with assessors blinded to group assignment. The primary outcome was psychological distress assessed with the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). Secondary outcomes included depression symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, "heart-mind" problems, social support, somatic symptoms, and functional impairment. The hypothesized mediator was skill use aligned with the treatment's mechanisms of action. A total of 324 participants were enrolled in the control arm (36 wards) and 319 in the Group PM+ arm (36 wards). The overall sample (N = 611) had a median age of 45 years (range 18-91 years), 82% of participants were female, 50% had recently experienced a natural disaster, and 31% had a chronic physical illness. Endline assessments were completed by 302 participants in the control arm (36 wards) and 303 participants in the Group PM+ arm (36 wards). At the midline assessment (immediately after Group PM+ in the experimental arm), mean GHQ-12 total score was 2.7 units lower in Group PM+ compared to control (95% CI: 1.7, 3.7, p < 0.001), with standardized mean difference (SMD) of -0.4 (95% CI: -0.5, -0.2). At 3 months posttreatment (primary endpoint), mean GHQ-12 total score was 1.4 units lower in Group PM+ compared to control (95% CI: 0.3, 2.5, p = 0.014), with SMD of -0.2 (95% CI: -0.4, 0.0). Among the secondary outcomes, Group PM+ was associated with endline with a larger proportion attaining more than 50% reduction in depression symptoms (29.9% of Group PM+ arm versus 17.3% of control arm, risk ratio = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.2, 2.4, p = 0.002). Fewer participants in the Group PM+ arm continued to have "heart-mind" problems at endline (58.8%) compared to the control arm (69.4%), risk ratio = 0.8 (95% CI, 0.7, 1.0, p = 0.042). Group PM+ was not associated with lower PTSD symptoms or functional impairment. Use of psychosocial skills at midline was estimated to explain 31% of the PM+ effect on endline GHQ-12 scores. Adverse events in the control arm included 1 suicide death and 1 reportable incidence of domestic violence; in the Group PM+ arm, there was 1 death due to physical illness. Study limitations include lack of power to evaluate gender-specific effects, lack of long-term outcomes (e.g., 12 months posttreatment), and lack of cost-effectiveness information. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we found that a 5-session group psychological treatment delivered by nonspecialists modestly reduced psychological distress and depression symptoms in a setting prone to humanitarian emergencies. Benefits were partly explained by the degree of psychosocial skill use in daily life. To improve the treatment benefit, future implementation should focus on approaches to enhance skill use by PM+ participants. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03747055.

A distress-continuum, disorder-threshold model of depression: a mixed-methods, latent class analysis study of slum-dwelling young men in Bangladesh.

BACKGROUND: Binary categorical approaches to diagnosing depression have been widely criticized due to clinical limitations and potential negative consequences. In place of such categorical models of depression, a 'staged model' has recently been proposed to classify populations into four tiers according to severity of symptoms: 'Wellness;' 'Distress;' 'Disorder;' and 'Refractory.' However, empirical approaches to deriving this model are limited, especially with populations in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: A mixed-methods study using latent class analysis (LCA) was conducted to empirically test non-binary models to determine the application of LCA to derive the 'staged model' of depression. The study population was 18 to 29-year-old men (n = 824) from an urban slum of Bangladesh, a low resource country in South Asia. Subsequently, qualitative interviews (n = 60) were conducted with members of each latent class to understand experiential differences among class members. RESULTS: The LCA derived 3 latent classes: (1) Severely distressed (n = 211), (2) Distressed (n = 329), and (3) Wellness (n = 284). Across the classes, some symptoms followed a continuum of severity: 'levels of strain', 'difficulty making decisions', and 'inability to overcome difficulties.' However, more severe symptoms such as 'anhedonia', 'concentration issues', and 'inability to face problems' only emerged in the severely distressed class. Qualitatively, groups were distinguished by severity of tension, a local idiom of distress. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that LCA can be a useful empirical tool to inform the 'staged model' of depression. In the findings, a subset of distress symptoms was continuously distributed, but other acute symptoms were only present in the class with the highest distress severity. This suggests a distress-continuum, disorder-threshold model of depression, wherein a constellation of impairing symptoms emerge together after exceeding a high level of distress, i.e., a tipping point of tension heralds a host of depression symptoms.

Telomere length analysis from minimally-invasively collected samples: Methods development and meta-analysis of the validity of different sampling techniques: American Journal of Human Biology.

OBJECTIVES: Telomeres are the protective caps of chromosomes. They shorten with cell replication, age, and possibly environmental stimuli (eg, infection and stress). Short telomere length (TL) predicts subsequent worse health. Although venous whole blood (VWB) is most commonly used for TL measurement, other, more minimally invasive, sampling techniques are becoming increasingly common due to their field-friendliness, allowing for feasible measurement in low-resource contexts. We conducted statistical validation work for measuring TL in dried blood spots (DBS) and incorporated our results into a meta-analysis evaluating minimally invasive sampling techniques to measure TL. METHODS: We isolated DNA extracts from DBS using a modified extraction protocol and tested how they endured different shipping conditions and long-term cryostorage. We then included our in-house DBS TL validation statistics (correlation values with VWB TL and age) in a series of meta-analyses of results from 24 other studies that published similar associations for values between TL measured in DBS, saliva, and buccal cells. RESULTS: Our modified DBS extraction technique produced DNA yields that were roughly twice as large as previously recorded. Partially extracted DBS DNA was stable for 7 days at room temperature, and still provided reliable TL measurements, as determined by external validation statistics. In our meta-analysis, DBS TL had the highest external validity, followed by saliva, and then buccal cells-possibly reflecting similarities/differences in cellular composition vs VWB. CONCLUSIONS: DBS DNA is the best proxy for VWB from the three minimally-invasively specimen types evaluated and can be used to expand TL research to diverse settings and populations.

Passive sensing on mobile devices to improve mental health services with adolescent and young mothers in low-resource settings: the role of families in feasibility and acceptability.

BACKGROUND: Passive sensor data from mobile devices can shed light on daily activities, social behavior, and maternal-child interactions to improve maternal and child health services including mental healthcare. We assessed feasibility and acceptability of the Sensing Technologies for Maternal Depression Treatment in Low Resource Settings (StandStrong) platform. The StandStrong passive data collection platform was piloted with adolescent and young mothers, including mothers experiencing postpartum depression, in Nepal. METHODS: Mothers (15-25 years old) with infants (< 12 months old) were recruited in person from vaccination clinics in rural Nepal. They were provided with an Android smartphone and a Bluetooth beacon to collect data in four domains: the mother's location using the Global Positioning System (GPS), physical activity using the phone's accelerometer, auditory environment using episodic audio recording on the phone, and mother-infant proximity measured with the Bluetooth beacon attached to the infant's clothing. Feasibility and acceptability were evaluated based on the amount of passive sensing data collected compared to the total amount that could be collected in a 2-week period. Endline qualitative interviews were conducted to understand mothers' experiences and perceptions of passive data collection. RESULTS: Of the 782 women approached, 320 met eligibility criteria and 38 mothers (11 depressed, 27 non-depressed) were enrolled. 38 mothers (11 depressed, 27 non-depressed) were enrolled. Across all participants, 5,579 of the hour-long data collection windows had at least one audio recording [mean (M) = 57.4% of the total possible hour-long recording windows per participant; median (Mdn) = 62.6%], 5,001 activity readings (M = 50.6%; Mdn = 63.2%), 4,168 proximity readings (M = 41.1%; Mdn = 47.6%), and 3,482 GPS readings (M = 35.4%; Mdn = 39.2%). Feasibility challenges were phone battery charging, data usage exceeding prepaid limits, and burden of carrying mobile phones. Acceptability challenges were privacy concerns and lack of family involvement. Overall, families' understanding of passive sensing and families' awareness of potential benefits to mothers and infants were the major modifiable factors increasing acceptability and reducing gaps in data collection. CONCLUSION: Per sensor type, approximately half of the hour-long collection windows had at least one reading. Feasibility challenges for passive sensing on mobile devices can be addressed by providing alternative phone charging options, reverse billing for the app, and replacing mobile phones with smartwatches. Enhancing acceptability will require greater family involvement and improved communication regarding benefits of passive sensing for psychological interventions and other health services. Registration International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): DERR1-10.2196/14734.

Traditional Healers and Mental Health in Nepal: A Scoping Review.

Despite extensive ethnographic and qualitative research on traditional healers in Nepal, the role of traditional healers in relation to mental health has not been synthesized. We focused on the following clinically based research question, "What are the processes by which Nepali traditional healers address mental well-being?" We adopted a scoping review methodology to maximize the available literature base and conducted a modified thematic analysis rooted in grounded theory, ethnography, and phenomenology. We searched five databases using terms related to traditional healers and mental health. We contacted key authors and reviewed references for additional literature. Our scoping review yielded 86 eligible studies, 65 of which relied solely on classical qualitative study designs. The reviewed literature suggests that traditional healers use a wide range of interventions that utilize magico-religious explanatory models to invoke symbolic transference, manipulation of local illness narratives, roles, and relationships, cognitive restructuring, meaning-making, and catharsis. Traditional healers' perceived impact appears greatest for mild to moderate forms of psychological distress. However, the methodological and sample heterogeneity preclude uniform conclusions about traditional healing. Further research should employ methods which are both empirically sound and culturally adapted to explore the role of traditional healers in mental health.

Reassessing the Mental Health Treatment Gap: What Happens if We Include the Impact of Traditional Healing on Mental Illness?

In this Fresh Focus, we reassess what the mental health treatment gap may mean if we consider the role of traditional healing. Based on systematic reviews, patients can use traditional healers and qualitatively report improvement from general psychological distress and symptom reduction for common mental disorders. Given these clinical implications, some high-income countries have scaled up research into traditional healing practices, while at the same time in low-and middle-income countries, where the use of traditional healers is nearly ubiquitous, considerably less research funding has studied or capitalized on this phenomena. The World Health Organization 2003-2020 Mental Health Action Plan called for government health programs to include traditional and faith healers as treatment resources to combat the low- and middle-income country treatment gap. Reflection on the work which emerged during the course of this Mental Health Action Plan revealed areas for improvement. As we embark on the next Mental Health Action Plan, we offer lessons-learned for exploring potential relationships and collaborations between traditional healing and biomedicine.

Satisfaction in the Soul: Common Factors Theory Applied to Traditional Healers in Rural Nepal.

To explore the relationship between traditional healers and conventional psychotherapy, we conducted a combined ethnographic study and structured observational rating of healers in the middle hill region of central Nepal. We conducted in-depth interviews and ethnographic observations of healing with 84 participants comprising 29 traditional healers and 55 other community members. Overall, our observations and participant responses yielded a range of interventions that improved health through belief, satisfaction in the soul, social support, transference, and symbolic narration. The findings from our overall ethnography suggest that healers offer a platform for their patients to accept a disease state, cope with it, and to experience palliation of distress. We additionally focused on one participant who saw multiple healers for a case study, during which we rated healing behavior using an observational measure of empathy, emotional validation, and therapeutic alliance. Using this measure, healers who were perceived as successful, scored high on alliance, empathy, promoting expectations of recovery, and use of cultural models of distress. The results of our structured observation suggest healers draw upon processes also observed in psychotherapy. Further research is needed to explore if these practices can be generalized to healers in other parts of Nepal and other settings. [spirituality, mental health, ethnopsychology, shamanism, mind-body relations].

Community-, facility-, and individual-level outcomes of a district mental healthcare plan in a low-resource setting in Nepal: A population-based evaluation.

BACKGROUND: In low-income countries, care for people with mental, neurological, and substance use (MNS) disorders is largely absent, especially in rural settings. To increase treatment coverage, integration of mental health services into community and primary healthcare settings is recommended. While this strategy is being rolled out globally, rigorous evaluation of outcomes at each stage of the service delivery pathway from detection to treatment initiation to individual outcomes of care has been missing. METHODS AND FINDINGS: A combination of methods were employed to evaluate the impact of a district mental healthcare plan for depression, psychosis, alcohol use disorder (AUD), and epilepsy as part of the Programme for Improving Mental Health Care (PRIME) in Chitwan District, Nepal. We evaluated 4 components of the service delivery pathway: (1) contact coverage of primary care mental health services, evaluated through a community study (N = 3,482 combined for all waves of community surveys) and through service utilisation data (N = 727); (2) detection of mental illness among participants presenting in primary care facilities, evaluated through a facility study (N = 3,627 combined for all waves of facility surveys); (3) initiation of minimally adequate treatment after diagnosis, evaluated through the same facility study; and (4) treatment outcomes of patients receiving primary-care-based mental health services, evaluated through cohort studies (total N = 449 depression, N = 137; AUD, N = 175; psychosis, N = 95; epilepsy, N = 42). The lack of structured diagnostic assessments (instead of screening tools), the relatively small sample size for some study components, and the uncontrolled nature of the study are among the limitations to be noted. All data collection took place between 15 January 2013 and 15 February 2017. Contact coverage increased 7.5% for AUD (from 0% at baseline), 12.2% for depression (from 0%), 11.7% for epilepsy (from 1.3%), and 50.2% for psychosis (from 3.2%) when using service utilisation data over 12 months; community survey results did not reveal significant changes over time. Health worker detection of depression increased by 15.7% (from 8.9% to 24.6%) 6 months after training, and 10.3% (from 8.9% to 19.2%) 24 months after training; for AUD the increase was 58.9% (from 1.1% to 60.0%) and 11.0% (from 1.1% to 12.1%) for 6 months and 24 months, respectively. Provision of minimally adequate treatment subsequent to diagnosis for depression was 93.9% at 6 months and 66.7% at 24 months; for AUD these values were 95.1% and 75.0%, respectively. Changes in treatment outcomes demonstrated small to moderate effect sizes (9.7-point reduction [d = 0.34] in AUD symptoms, 6.4-point reduction [d = 0.43] in psychosis symptoms, 7.2-point reduction [d = 0.58] in depression symptoms) at 12 months post-treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These combined results make a promising case for the feasibility and impact of community- and primary-care-based services delivered through an integrated district mental healthcare plan in reducing the treatment gap and increasing effective coverage for MNS disorders. While the integrated mental healthcare approach does lead to apparent benefits in most of the outcome metrics, there are still significant areas that require further attention (e.g., no change in community-level contact coverage, attrition in AUD detection rates over time, and relatively low detection rates for depression).

Out of the silos: identifying cross-cutting features of health-related stigma to advance measurement and intervention.

BACKGROUND: Many health conditions perceived to be contagious, dangerous or incurable, or resulting in clearly visible signs, share a common attribute - an association with stigma and discrimination. While the etiology of stigma may differ between conditions and, sometimes, cultural settings, the manifestations and psychosocial consequences of stigma and discrimination are remarkably similar. However, the vast majority of studies measuring stigma or addressing stigma through interventions employ a disease-specific approach. MAIN BODY: The current paper opposes this siloed approach and advocates a generic concept of 'health-related stigma' in both stigma measurement and stigma interventions. Employing a conceptual model adapted from Weiss, the current paper demonstrates the commonalities among several major stigmatized conditions by examining how several stigma measurement instruments, such as the Social Distance Scale, Explanatory Model Interview Catalogue, Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness, and Berger stigma scale, and stigma reduction interventions, such as information-based approaches, contact with affected persons, (peer) counselling, and skills building and empowerment, were used successfully across a variety of conditions to measure or address stigma. The results demonstrate that 'health-related stigma' is a viable concept with clearly identifiable characteristics that are similar across a variety of stigmatized health conditions in very diverse cultures. CONCLUSION: A more generic approach to the study of health-related stigma opens up important practical opportunities - cross-cutting measurement and intervention tools are resource saving and easier to use for personnel working with multiple conditions, allow for comparison between conditions, and recognize the intersectionality of many types of stigma. Further research is needed to build additional evidence demonstrating the advantages and effectiveness of cross-condition approaches to stigma measurement and interventions.

Treatment failure in inflammatory arthritis: time to think about syndemics?

Social determinants of health play a crucial role in health and disease. In current times, it has become increasingly known that biological and non-biological factors are potentially linked and help to drive disease. For example, links between various comorbidities, both physical and mental illnesses, are known to be driven by social, environmental and economic determinants. This contributes to worse disease outcomes. This article discusses the concept of syndemics, which although well-described in some conditions, represents a novel concept in the context of rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. Written in the form of a viewpoint, the article focuses on a novel theoretical framework for studying inflammatory arthritis, based on a syndemic approach that takes into account the social context, biocultural disease interaction, and socio-economic characteristics of the setting. Syndemics involving inflammatory arthritis may be most likely in a social context involving limited access to health care, lack of physical activity and obesogenic diets, high rates of alcohol consumption, and high exposure to stressful life events.

Effectiveness of psychological treatments for depression and alcohol use disorder delivered by community-based counsellors: two pragmatic randomised controlled trials within primary healthcare in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Evidence shows benefits of psychological treatments in low-resource countries, yet few government health systems include psychological services.AimEvaluating the clinical value of adding psychological treatments, delivered by community-based counsellors, to primary care-based mental health services for depression and alcohol use disorder (AUD), as recommended by the Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP). METHOD: Two randomised controlled trials, separately for depression and AUD, were carried out. Participants were randomly allocated (1:1) to mental healthcare delivered by mhGAP-trained primary care workers (psychoeducation and psychotropic medicines when indicated), or the same services plus individual psychological treatments (Healthy Activity Program for depression and Counselling for Alcohol Problems). Primary outcomes were symptom severity, measured using the Patient Health Questionnaire - 9 item (PHQ-9) for depression and the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test for AUD, and functional impairment, measured using the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS), at 12 months post-enrolment. RESULTS: Participants with depression in the intervention arm (n = 60) had greater reduction in PHQ-9 and WHODAS scores compared with participants in the control (n = 60) (PHQ-9: M = -5.90, 95% CI -7.55 to -4.25, ß = -3.68, 95% CI -5.68 to -1.67, P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.66; WHODAS: M = -12.21, 95% CI -19.58 to -4.84, ß = -10.74, 95% CI -19.96 to -1.53, P= 0.022, Cohen's d = 0.42). For the AUD trial, no significant effect was found when comparing control (n = 80) and intervention participants (n = 82). CONCLUSION: Adding a psychological treatment delivered by community-based counsellors increases treatment effects for depression compared with only mhGAP-based services by primary health workers 12 months post-treatment.Declaration of interestNone.

Psychological resilience and the gene regulatory impact of posttraumatic stress in Nepali child soldiers.

Adverse social conditions in early life have been linked to increased expression of proinflammatory genes and reduced expression of antiviral genes in circulating immune cells-the conserved transcriptional response to adversity (CTRA). However, it remains unclear whether such effects are specific to the Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) cultural environments in which previous research has been conducted. To assess the roles of early adversity and individual psychological resilience in immune system gene regulation within a non-WEIRD population, we evaluated CTRA gene-expression profiles in 254 former child soldiers and matched noncombatant civilians 5 y after the People's War in Nepal. CTRA gene expression was up-regulated in former child soldiers. These effects were linked to the degree of experienced trauma and associated distress-that is, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) severity-more than to child soldier status per se. Self-perceived psychological resilience was associated with marked buffering of CTRA activation such that PTSD-affected former child soldiers with high levels of personal resilience showed molecular profiles comparable to those of PTSD-free civilians. These results suggest that CTRA responses to early life adversity are not restricted to WEIRD cultural contexts and they underscore the key role of resilience in determining the molecular impact of adverse environments.

Cholera control and anti-Haitian stigma in the Dominican Republic: from migration policy to lived experience.

As cholera spread from Haiti to the Dominican Republic, Haitian migrants, a largely undocumented and stigmatized population in Dominican society, became a focus of public health concern. Concurrent to the epidemic, the Dominican legislature enacted new documentation requirements. This paper presents findings from an ethnographic study of anti-Haitian stigma in the Dominican Republic from June to August 2012. Eight focus group discussions (FGDs) were held with Haitian and Dominican community members. Five in-depth interviews were held with key informants in the migration policy sector. Theoretical frameworks of stigma's moral experience guided the analysis of how cholera was perceived, ways in which blame was assigned and felt and the relationship between documentation and healthcare access. In FGDs, both Haitians and Dominicans expressed fear of cholera and underscored the importance of public health messages to prevent the epidemic's spread. However, health messages also figured into experiences of stigma and rationales for blame. For Dominicans, failure to follow public health advice justified the blame of Haitians and seemed to confirm anti-Haitian sentiments. Haitians communicated a sense of powerlessness to follow public health messages given structural constraints like lack of safe water and sanitation, difficulty accessing healthcare and lack of documentation. In effect, by making documentation more difficult to obtain, the migration policy undermined cholera programs and contributed to ongoing processes of moral disqualification. Efforts to eliminate cholera from the island should consider how policy and stigma can undermine public health campaigns and further jeopardize the everyday 'being-in-the-world' of vulnerable groups.