Chameleonic Cages: Encapsulation of Anionic, Neutral, and Cationic Guest Species within [Fe4L4]8+ Tetrahedral Cages Synthesised from the tris(4-aminophenyl)phosphate pro-Ligand.

An adaptable Fe(II) tetrahedral cage, [Fe4L4][BF4]8 (L=tris(4-(((E)-pyridin-2-ylmethylene)amino)phenyl) phosphate), has been synthesised via self-assembly. By modulating the orientation of its pendant P=O groups, the cage was found to be capable of encapsulating anionic, neutral, and cationic guests, which were confirmed in the solid state via single-crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) and in solution by high-resolution mass spectroscopy (HR-MS), as well as by NMR (1H, 19F, 31P) studies where possible.

Self-Assembly Synthesis of a [2]Catenane CoII Single-Molecule Magnet.

We describe herein the self-assembly synthesis of an octanuclear CoII [2]catenane {[Co4 (H2 L)6 ]2 16+ } formed by the mechanical interlocking of two {[Co4 (H2 L)6 ]8+ } rectangles of unprecedented topology. Subtle manipulation of the synthetic conditions allows the isolation of a mixed-valence [Co2 III /Co2 II ]10+ non-catenated rectangle. The CoII centers in the [2]catenane exhibit slow relaxation of their magnetic moment, i. e. single-molecule magnet properties, dominated by quantum tunneling and Raman relaxation processes. This work shows that metallo-supramolecular chemistry can precisely control the organization of single-molecule magnets in topologically complex arrangements.

Synthetic Approaches to Metallo-Supramolecular CoII Polygons and Potential Use for H2O Oxidation.

Metal-directed self-assembly has been applied to prepare supramolecular coordination polygons which adopt tetrahedral (1) or trigonal disklike topologies (2). In the solid state, 2 assembles into a stable halide-metal-organic material (Hal-MOM-2), which catalyzes H2O oxidation under photo- and electrocatalytic conditions, operating with a maximum TON = 78 and TOF = 1.26 s-1. DFT calculations attribute the activity to a CoIII-oxyl species. This study provides the first account of how CoII imine based supramolecules can be employed as H2O oxidation catalysts.

Reversible Transformation between a [PdL2 ]2+ "Figure-of-Eight" Complex and a [Pd2 L2 ]4+ Dimer: Switching On and Off Self-Recognition.

Structural changes to metallosupramolecular assemblies resulting in the release or uptake of guests are currently well established, whereas transformations turning on and off specific self-recognition are far less developed. We report a novel ligand (2,6-bis(1-(3-pyridin-4-yl)phenyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)pyridine) possessing a tridentate central metal-binding site flanked by two pendant pyridyl arms. In a 2:1 ratio with PdII metal ions, a spiro-type [PdL2 ]2+ "Figure-of-eight" complex forms with the central tridentate binding pocket unoccupied. The introduction of an additional one equivalent of PdII metal ion results in the conversion to a dimeric [Pd2 L2 ]4+ molecule with the tridentate pocket occupied. There is site-specific self-recognition between dimers in solution with strong NOE peaks between adjacent molecules. The self-recognition between dimers can be turned off in two ways: firstly, adding another equivalent of PdII metal ion brings about binding to the previously uncoordinated pyridyl arms that are key to the self-recognition event, and; secondly, addition of sufficient ligand to return the stoichiometry to 2:1 regenerates the [PdL2 ]2+ complex. Hence, the self-recognition event can be turned on or off through simple variation of L:PdII stoichiometry.

Halogen Substitution Effects on N2 O Schiff Base Ligands in Unprecedented Abrupt FeII Spin Crossover Complexes.

A family of halogen-substituted Schiff base iron(II) complexes, [FeII (qsal-X)2 ], (qsal-X=5-X-N-(8-quinolyl)salicylaldimines)) in which X=F (1), Cl (2), Br (3) or I (4) has been investigated in detail. Compound 1 shows a temperature invariant high spin state, whereas the others all show abrupt spin transitions, at or above room temperature, namely, 295 K (X=I) up to 342 K (X=Br), these being some of the highest T1/2 values obtained, to date, for FeII N/O species. We have recently reported subtle symmetry breaking in [FeII (qsal-Cl)2 ] 2 with two spin transition steps occurring at 308 and 316 K. A photomagnetic study reveals almost full HS conversion of [FeII (qsal-I)2 ] 4 at low temperature (T(LIESST)=54 °K). The halogen substitution effects on the magnetic properties, as well as the crystal packing of the [FeII (qsal-X)2 ] compounds and theoretical calculations, are discussed in depth, giving important knowledge for the design of new spin crossover materials. In comparison to the well known iron(III) analogues, [FeIII (qsal-X)2 ]+ , the two extra π-π and P4AE interactions found in [FeII (qsal-X)2 ] compounds, are believed to be accountable for the spin transitions occurring at ambient temperatures.

An Isoreticular Series of Zinc(II) Metal-Organic Frameworks Derived from Terpyridylcarboxylate Ligands.

An isoreticular family of seven microporous metal-organic frameworks of the general form [ZnL] have been synthesized, where L is a 4'-substituted 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine-4,4″-dicarboxylate ligand. Each framework adopts an interpenetrated zeolitic gismondine (gis-c) topology and possesses one-dimensional square channels with ca. 9.0 Šapertures running down the crystallographic c axis. Gas adsorption measurements with N2, H2, CH4, and CO2 confirm their permanent porosity. The ligand functional groups, which include phenyl, 2-tolyl, 4-chlorophenyl, 4-nitrophenyl, 2-thienyl, 3-thienyl, and 4-pyridyl, line the channel walls and tune the gas adsorption properties of these materials.

Catalytically Active Bimetallic Nanoparticles Supported on Porous Carbon Capsules Derived From Metal-Organic Framework Composites.

We report a new methodology for producing monometallic or bimetallic nanoparticles confined within hollow nitrogen-doped porous carbon capsules. The capsules are derived from metal-organic framework (MOF) crystals that are coated with a shell of a secondary material comprising either a metal-tannic acid coordination polymer or a resorcinol-formaldehyde polymer. Platinum nanoparticles are optionally sandwiched between the MOF core and the shell. Pyrolysis of the MOF-shell composites produces hollow capsules of porous nitrogen-doped carbon that bear either monometallic (Pt, Co, and Ni) or alloyed (PtCo and PtNi) metal nanoparticles. The Co and Ni components of the bimetallic nanoparticles are derived from the shell surrounding the MOF crystals. The hollow capsules prevent sintering and detachment of the nanoparticles, and their porous walls allow for efficient mass transport. Alloyed PtCo nanoparticles embedded in the capsule walls are highly active, selective, and recyclable catalysts for the hydrogenation of nitroarenes to anilines.

Metal-organic framework nanocrystals as sacrificial templates for hollow and exceptionally porous titania and composite materials.

We report a strategy that employs metal-organic framework (MOF) crystals in two roles for the fabrication of hollow nanomaterials. In the first role the MOF crystals provide a template on which a shell of material can be deposited. Etching of the MOF produces a hollow structure with a predetermined size and morphology. In combination with this strategy, the MOF crystals, including guest molecules in their pores, can provide the components of a secondary material that is deposited inside the initially formed shell. We used this approach to develop a straightforward and reproducible method for constructing well-defined, nonspherical hollow and exceptionally porous titania and titania-based composite nanomaterials. Uniform hollow nanostructures of amorphous titania, which assume the cubic or polyhedral shape of the original template, are delivered using nano- and microsized ZIF-8 and ZIF-67 crystal templates. These materials exhibit outstanding textural properties including hierarchical pore structures and BET surface areas of up to 800 m(2)/g. As a proof of principle, we further demonstrate that metal nanoparticles such as Pt nanoparticles, can be encapsulated into the TiO2 shell during the digestion process and used for subsequent heterogeneous catalysis. In addition, we show that the core components of the ZIF nanocrystals, along with their adsorbed guests, can be used as precursors for the formation of secondary materials, following their thermal decomposition, to produce hollow and porous metal sulfide/titania or metal oxide/titania composite nanostructures.

Cross-Linking the Fibers of Supramolecular Gels Formed from a Tripodal Terpyridine Derived Ligand with d-Block Metal Ions.

The tripodal terpyridine ligand, L, forms 1D helical supramolecular polymers/gels in H2O-CH3OH solution mediated through hydrogen bonding and π-π interactions. These gels further cross-link into 3D supramolecular metallogels with a range of metal ions (M) such as Fe(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), and Ru(III); the cross-linking resulting in the formation of colored or colorless gels. The fibrous morphology of these gels was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM); while the self-assembly processes between L and M were investigated by absorbance and emission spectroscopy from which their binding constants were determined by using a nonlinear regression analysis.

Unexpected self-sorting self-assembly formation of a [4:4] sulfate:ligand cage from a preorganized tripodal urea ligand.

The design and synthesis of tripodal ligands 1-3 based upon the N-methyl-1,3,5-benzenetricarboxamide platform appended with three aryl urea arms is reported. This ligand platform gives rise to highly preorganized structures and is ideally suited for binding SO4 (2-) and H2 PO4 (-) ions through multiple hydrogen-bonding interactions. The solid-state crystal structures of 1-3 with SO4 (2-) show the encapsulation of a single anion within a cage structure, whereas the crystal structure of 1 with H2 PO4 (-) showed that two anions are encapsulated. We further demonstrate that ligand 4, based on the same platform but consisting of two bis-urea moieties and a single ammonium moiety, also recognizes SO4 (2-) to form a self-assembled capsule with [4:4] SO4 (2-) :4 stoichiometry in which the anions are clustered within a cavity formed by the four ligands. This is the first example of a self-sorting self-assembled capsule where four tetrahedrally arranged SO4 (2-) ions are embedded within a hydrophobic cavity.

Crystal Engineering of a New Hexafluorogermanate Pillared Hybrid Ultramicroporous Material Delivers Enhanced Acetylene Selectivity.

Hybrid ultramicroporous materials (HUMs), metal-organic platforms that incorporate inorganic pillars, are a promising class of porous solids. A key area of interest for such materials is gas separation, where HUMs have already established benchmark performances. Thanks to their ready compositional modularity, we report the design and synthesis of a new HUM, GEFSIX-21-Cu, incorporating the ligand pypz (4-(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyridine, 21) and GeF62- pillaring anions. GEFSIX-21-Cu delivers on two fronts: first, it displays an exceptionally high C2H2 adsorption capacity (≥5 mmol g-1) which is paired with low uptake of CO2 (<2 mmol g-1), and, second, a low enthalpy of adsorption for C2H2 (ca. 32 kJ mol-1). This combination is rarely seen in the C2H2 selective physisorbents reported thus far, and not observed in related isostructural HUMs featuring pypz and other pillaring anions. Dynamic column breakthrough experiments for 1:1 and 2:1 C2H2/CO2 mixtures revealed GEFSIX-21-Cu to selectively separate C2H2 from CO2, yielding ≥99.99% CO2 effluent purities. Temperature-programmed desorption experiments revealed full sorbent regeneration in <35 min at 60 °C, reinforcing HUMs as potentially technologically relevant materials for strategic gas separations.

Coordination polymers and metal-organic frameworks derived from 4,4'-dicarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine and 4,4',6,6'-tetracarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine ligands: a personal perspective.

Presented herein is a personal overview of some of the contributions we have made over recent years to coordination polymer chemistry employing 2,2'-bipyridine-polycarboxylic acid ligands in conjunction with first row transition, main group or lanthanide metal ions. Primarily the discussion is centred upon the two ligands with which we have enjoyed the most success: 4,4'-dicarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine (4,4'-H2dcbp) and 4,4',6,6'-tetracarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine (4,4',6,6'-H4tcbp). Initial discussion is focused upon the synthetic aspects of ligand formation and their structural characterisation and then moves on to the synthesis of metal complexes incorporating these ligands and the coordination polymers they form. Where possible the discussion is presented from a synthetic and structural perspective with highlight given to the pertinent properties of the coordination polymers formed e.g. thermal behaviour, magnetic, luminescent or small molecule sorption properties. We end the review with some conclusions and highlight some current work with a view to future research.

Europium-directed self-assembly of a luminescent supramolecular gel from a tripodal terpyridine-based ligand.

Eu(III), the last piece in the puzzle: Europium-induced self-assembly of ligands having a C(3)-symmetrical benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide core results in the formation of luminescent gels. Supramolecular polymers are formed through hydrogen bonding between the ligands. The polymers are then brought together into the gel assembly through the coordination of terpyridine ends by Eu(III) ions (blue dashed arrow: distance between two ligands in the strand direction).

Heteroleptic Tripalladium(II) Cages.

There is a concerted attempt to develop self-assembled metallo-cages of greater structural complexity, and heteroleptic PdII cages are emerging as prime candidates in these efforts. Most of these are dinuclear: few examples of higher nuclearity have been reported. We demonstrate here a robust method for the formation of tripalladium(II) cages from the 2 : 3 : 3 combination of a tritopic ligand, PdII , and a selection of ditopic ligands of the correct size and geometry.

Spontaneous formation of novel luminescent dinuclear lanthanide complexes that emit in the visible and near-IR regions.

The reaction of tetrasodium-4,4',6,6'-tetracarboxy-2,2'-bipyridine (Na(4)L) with various lanthanide ions yields a family of isostructural supramolecular {Na(2)[Ln(2)L(2)]} complexes (1-4), where Ln(III) = Eu, Nd, Gd, and Tb. Strikingly, these complexes luminesce in buffered H(2)O or D(2)O solutions in either the visible or near-IR regions, despite their high hydration states.

Colorimetric and fluorescent anion sensors: an overview of recent developments in the use of 1,8-naphthalimide-based chemosensors.

This critical review focuses on the development of anion sensors, being either fluorescent and/or colorimetric, based on the use of the 1,8-naphthalimide structure; a highly versatile building unit that absorbs and emits at long wavelengths. The review commences with a short description of the most commonly used design principles employed in chemosensors, followed by a discussion on the photophysical properties of the 4-amino-1,8-naphthalimide structure which has been most commonly employed in both cation and anion sensing to date. This is followed by a review of the current state of the art in naphthalimide-based anion sensing, where systems using ureas, thioureas and amides as hydrogen-bonding receptors, as well as charged receptors have been used for anion sensing in both organic and aqueous solutions, or within various polymeric networks, such as hydrogels. The review concludes with some current and future perspectives including the use of the naphthalimides for sensing small biomolecules, such as amino acids, as well as probes for incorporation and binding to proteins; and for the recognition/sensing of polyanions such as DNA, and their potential use as novel therapeutic and diagnostic agents (95 references).

Functionalized Iron-Nitrogen-Carbon Electrocatalyst Provides a Reversible Electron Transfer Platform for Efficient Uranium Extraction from Seawater.

Uranium extraction from seawater provides an opportunity for sustainable fuel supply to nuclear power plants. Herein, an adsorption-electrocatalysis strategy is demonstrated for efficient uranium extraction from seawater using a functionalized iron-nitrogen-carbon (Fe-Nx -C-R) catalyst, comprising N-doped carbon capsules supporting FeNx single-atom sites and surface chelating amidoxime groups (R). The amidoxime groups bring hydrophilicity to the adsorbent and offer surface-specific binding sites for UO2 2+ capture. The site-isolated FeNx centres reduce adsorbed UO2 2+ to UO2 + . Subsequently, through electrochemical reduction of the FeNx sites, unstable U(V) ions are reoxidized to U(VI) in the presence of Na+ resulting in the generation of solid Na2 O(UO3 ·H2 O)x , which can easily be collected. Fe-Nx -C-R reduced the uranium concentration in seawater from ≈3.5 ppb to below 0.5 ppb with a calculated capacity of ≈1.2 mg g-1 within 24 h. To the best of the knowledge, the developed system is the first to use the adsorption of uranyl ions and electrodeposition of solid Na2 O(UO3 .H2 O)x for the extraction of uranium from seawater. The important discoveries guide technology development for the efficient extraction of uranium from seawater.

Breaking the trade-off between selectivity and adsorption capacity for gas separation.

The trade-off between selectivity and adsorption capacity with porous materials is a major roadblock to reducing the energy footprint of gas separation technologies. To address this matter, we report herein a systematic crystal engineering study of C2H2 removal from CO2 in a family of hybrid ultramicroporous materials (HUMs). The HUMs are composed of the same organic linker ligand, 4-(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)pyridine, pypz, three inorganic pillar ligands, and two metal cations, thereby affording six isostructural pcu topology HUMs. All six HUMs exhibited strong binding sites for C2H2 and weaker affinity for CO2. The tuning of pore size and chemistry enabled by crystal engineering resulted in benchmark C2H2/CO2 separation performance. Fixed-bed dynamic column breakthrough experiments for an equimolar (v/v = 1:1) C2H2/CO2 binary gas mixture revealed that one sorbent, SIFSIX-21-Ni, was the first C2H2 selective sorbent that combines exceptional separation selectivity (27.7) with high adsorption capacity (4 mmol·g-1).

Using Complementary Ligand Denticity to Direct Metallosupramolecular Structure about Metal Ions with Square-Planar Geometry.

An understanding of methods to control the structure of self-assembled architectures is central to the efforts of chemists interested in self-assembly synthesis. Metal ions with square-planar geometry are a favorite of metallosupramolecular chemists, as there are only a limited number of possible ligand arrangements around the metal ion. Two such arrangements, firstly four monodentate donor sites (1,1,1,1), and secondly two monodentate donors and one bidentate donor (1,1,2) exemplify the symmetry interaction and ligand directed approaches, respectively. Symmetry interaction approaches using two bidentate sites (2,2) or a monodentate and tridentate site (1,3) have not received the same level of attention. In these arrangements, two complementary sites combine at the metal ion(s). This Minireview seeks to detail strategies employed to direct structure in systems with these arrangements, and is illustrated with key exemplars from the field.

Modulation of Crystal Packing via the Tuning of Peripheral Functionality for a Family of Dinuclear Mesocates.

A family of four novel pyrazinyl-hydrazone based ligands have been synthesized with differing functionality at the 5-position of the central aromatic ring. Previous work has shown such ligands to form dinuclear triple mesocates which pack to form hexagonal channels capable of gas sorption. The effect of the peripheral functionality of the ligand on the crystal packing was investigated by synthesizing complexes 1 to 4 which feature amino, bromo, iodo and methoxy substituents respectively. Complexes 1 to 3 crystallized in the same hexagonal space group P63 /m and featured 1D channels. However, on closer inspection while the packing of 1 is mediated by hydrogen bonding interactions, the packing of complexes 2 and 3 are not, due to a subtlety different π-π stacking interaction enforced by the halogen substituent. The more bulky nature of the methoxy substituent of 4 results in the complex crystallizing in the triclinic space group P-1, featuring an entirely different crystal packing.