Autocrine-paracrine prostaglandin E2 signaling restricts TLR4 internalization and TRIF signaling.

The unique cell biology of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) allows it to initiate two signal-transduction cascades: a signal dependent on the adaptors TIRAP (Mal) and MyD88 that begins at the cell surface and regulates proinflammatory cytokines, and a signal dependent on the adaptors TRAM and TRIF that begins in the endosomes and drives the production of type I interferons. Negative feedback circuits to limit TLR4 signals from both locations are necessary to balance the inflammatory response. We describe a negative feedback loop driven by autocrine-paracrine prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and the PGE2 receptor EP4 that restricted TRIF-dependent signals and the induction of interferon-ß through the regulation of TLR4 trafficking. Inhibition of PGE2 production or antagonism of EP4 increased the rate at which TLR4 translocated to endosomes and amplified TRIF-dependent activation of the transcription factor IRF3 and caspase-8. This PGE2-driven mechanism restricted TLR4-TRIF signaling in vitro after infection of macrophages by the Gram-negative pathogens Escherichia coli or Citrobacter rodentium and protected mice against mortality induced by Salmonella enteritidis serovar Typhimurium. Thus, PGE2 restricted TLR4-TRIF signaling specifically in response to lipopolysaccharide.

Cost-effectiveness of 3-months isoniazid and rifapentine compared to 9-months isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a systematic review examining the cost effectiveness of a 3-month course of isoniazid and rifapentine, known as 3HP, given by directly observed treatment, compared to 9 months of isoniazid that is directly observed or self-administered, for latent tuberculosis infection. 3HP has shown to be effective in reducing progression to active tuberculosis and like other short-course regimens, has higher treatment completion rates compared to standard regimens such as 9 months of isoniazid. Decision makers would benefit from knowing if the higher up-front costs of rifapentine and of the human resources needed for directly observed treatment are worth the investment for improved outcomes. METHODS: We searched PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, LILACS, and Web of Science up to February 2022 with search concepts combining latent tuberculosis infection, directly observed treatment, and cost or cost-effectiveness. Studies included were in English or French, on human subjects, with latent tuberculosis infection, provided information on specified anti-tubercular therapy regimens, had a directly observed treatment arm, and described outcomes with some cost or economic data. We excluded posters and abstracts, treatment for multiple drug resistant tuberculosis, and combined testing and treatment strategies. We then restricted our findings to studies examining directly-observed 3HP for comparison. The primary outcome was the cost and cost-effectiveness of directly-observed 3HP. RESULTS: We identified 3 costing studies and 7 cost-effectiveness studies. The 3 costing studies compared directly-observed 3HP to directly-observed 9 months of isoniazid. Of the 7 cost-effectiveness studies, 4 were modelling studies based in high-income countries; one study was modelled on a high tuberculosis incidence population in the Canadian Arctic, using empiric costing data from that setting; and 2 studies were conducted in a low-income, high HIV-coinfection rate population. In five studies, directly-observed 3HP compared to self-administered isoniazid for 9 months in high-income countries, has incremental cost-effectiveness ratios that range from cost-saving to $5418 USD/QALY gained. While limited, existing evidence suggests 3HP may not be cost-effective in low-income, high HIV-coinfection settings. CONCLUSION: Cost-effectiveness should continue to be assessed for programmatic planning and scale-up, and may vary depending on existing systems and local context, including prevalence rates and patient expectations and preferences.

Early or Late Bacterial Lung Infection Increases Mortality After Traumatic Brain Injury in Male Mice and Chronically Impairs Monocyte Innate Immune Function.

OBJECTIVES: Respiratory infections in the postacute phase of traumatic brain injury impede optimal recovery and contribute substantially to overall morbidity and mortality. This study investigated bidirectional innate immune responses between the injured brain and lung, using a controlled cortical impact model followed by secondary Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in mice. DESIGN: Experimental study. SETTING: Research laboratory. SUBJECTS: Adult male C57BL/6J mice. INTERVENTIONS: C57BL/6J mice were subjected to sham surgery or moderate-level controlled cortical impact and infected intranasally with S. pneumoniae (1,500 colony-forming units) or vehicle (phosphate-buffered saline) at 3 or 60 days post-injury. MAIN RESULTS: At 3 days post-injury, S. pneumoniae-infected traumatic brain injury mice (TBI + Sp) had a 25% mortality rate, in contrast to no mortality in S. pneumoniae-infected sham (Sham + Sp) animals. TBI + Sp mice infected 60 days post-injury had a 60% mortality compared with 5% mortality in Sham + Sp mice. In both studies, TBI + Sp mice had poorer motor function recovery compared with TBI + PBS mice. There was increased expression of pro-inflammatory markers in cortex of TBI + Sp compared with TBI + PBS mice after both early and late infection, indicating enhanced post-traumatic neuroinflammation. In addition, monocytes from lungs of TBI + Sp mice were immunosuppressed acutely after traumatic brain injury and could not produce interleukin-1ß, tumor necrosis factor-α, or reactive oxygen species. In contrast, after delayed infection monocytes from TBI + Sp mice had higher levels of interleukin-1ß, tumor necrosis factor-α, and reactive oxygen species when compared with Sham + Sp mice. Increased bacterial burden and pathology was also found in lungs of TBI + Sp mice. CONCLUSIONS: Traumatic brain injury causes monocyte functional impairments that may affect the host's susceptibility to respiratory infections. Chronically injured mice had greater mortality following S. pneumoniae infection, which suggests that respiratory infections even late after traumatic brain injury may pose a more serious threat than is currently appreciated.

The TLR4 antagonist Eritoran protects mice from lethal influenza infection.

There is a pressing need to develop alternatives to annual influenza vaccines and antiviral agents licensed for mitigating influenza infection. Previous studies reported that acute lung injury caused by chemical or microbial insults is secondary to the generation of host-derived, oxidized phospholipid that potently stimulates Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-dependent inflammation. Subsequently, we reported that Tlr4(-/-) mice are highly refractory to influenza-induced lethality, and proposed that therapeutic antagonism of TLR4 signalling would protect against influenza-induced acute lung injury. Here we report that therapeutic administration of Eritoran (also known as E5564)-a potent, well-tolerated, synthetic TLR4 antagonist-blocks influenza-induced lethality in mice, as well as lung pathology, clinical symptoms, cytokine and oxidized phospholipid expression, and decreases viral titres. CD14 and TLR2 are also required for Eritoran-mediated protection, and CD14 directly binds Eritoran and inhibits ligand binding to MD2. Thus, Eritoran blockade of TLR signalling represents a novel therapeutic approach for inflammation associated with influenza, and possibly other infections.

Reprogramming of murine macrophages through TLR2 confers viral resistance via TRAF3-mediated, enhanced interferon production.

The cell surface/endosomal Toll-like Receptors (TLRs) are instrumental in initiating immune responses to both bacteria and viruses. With the exception of TLR2, all TLRs and cytosolic RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) with known virus-derived ligands induce type I interferons (IFNs) in macrophages or dendritic cells. Herein, we report that prior ligation of TLR2, an event previously shown to induce "homo" or "hetero" tolerance, strongly "primes" macrophages for increased Type I IFN production in response to subsequent TLR/RLR signaling. This occurs by increasing activation of the transcription factor, IFN Regulatory Factor-3 (IRF-3) that, in turn, leads to enhanced induction of IFN-ß, while expression of other pro-inflammatory genes are suppressed (tolerized). In vitro or in vivo "priming" of murine macrophages with TLR2 ligands increase virus-mediated IFN induction and resistance to infection. This priming effect of TLR2 is mediated by the selective upregulation of the K63 ubiquitin ligase, TRAF3. Thus, we provide a mechanistic explanation for the observed antiviral actions of MyD88-dependent TLR2 and further define the role of TRAF3 in viral innate immunity.

5,6-Dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid (DMXAA) activates stimulator of interferon gene (STING)-dependent innate immune pathways and is regulated by mitochondrial membrane potential.

The chemotherapeutic agent 5,6-dimethylxanthenone-4-acetic acid (DMXAA) is a potent inducer of type I IFNs and other cytokines. This ability is essential for its chemotherapeutic benefit in a mouse cancer model and suggests that it might also be useful as an antiviral agent. However, the mechanism underlying DMXAA-induced type I IFNs, including the host proteins involved, remains unclear. Recently, it was reported that the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) decreased DMXAA-induced TNF-α and IL-6, suggesting that oxidative stress may play a role. The goal of this study was to identify host proteins involved in DMXAA-dependent signaling and determine how antioxidants modulate this response. We found that expression of IFN-ß in response to DMXAA in mouse macrophages requires the mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum resident protein STING. Addition of the antioxidant diphenylene iodonium (DPI) diminished DMXAA-induced IFN-ß, but this decrease was independent of both the NADPH oxidase, Nox2, and de novo generation of reactive oxygen species. Additionally, IFN-ß up-regulation by DMXAA was inhibited by agents that target the mitochondrial electron transport chain and, conversely, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential correlated with diminished innate immune signaling in response to DMXAA. Up-regulation of Ifnb1 gene expression mediated by cyclic dinucleotides was also impaired by DPI, whereas up-regulation of Ifnb1 mRNA due to cytosolic double-stranded DNA was not. Although both stimuli signal through STING, cyclic dinucleotides interact directly with STING, suggesting that recognition of DMXAA by STING may also be mediated by direct interaction.

Transcriptional control of rapid recall by memory CD4 T cells.

Memory T cells are distinguished from naive T cells by their rapid production of effector cytokines, although mechanisms for this recall response remain undefined. In this study, we investigated transcriptional mechanisms for rapid IFN-γ production by Ag-specific memory CD4 T cells. In naive CD4 T cells, IFN-γ production only occurred after sustained Ag activation and was associated with high expression of the T-bet transcription factor required for Th1 differentiation and with T-bet binding to the IFN-γ promoter as assessed by chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis. By contrast, immediate IFN-γ production by Ag-stimulated memory CD4 T cells occurred in the absence of significant nuclear T-bet expression or T-bet engagement on the IFN-γ promoter. We identified rapid induction of NF-κB transcriptional activity and increased engagement of NF-κB on the IFN-γ promoter at rapid times after TCR stimulation of memory compared with naive CD4 T cells. Moreover, pharmacologic inhibition of NF-κB activity or peptide-mediated inhibition of NF-κB p50 translocation abrogated early memory T cell signaling and TCR-mediated effector function. Our results reveal a molecular mechanism for memory T cell recall through enhanced NF-κB p50 activation and promoter engagement, with important implications for memory T cell modulation in vaccines, autoimmunity, and transplantation.

Novel neuroendocrine role of γ-aminobutyric acid and gastrin-releasing peptide in the host response to influenza infection.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), an evolutionarily conserved neuropeptide, significantly contributes to influenza-induced lethality and inflammation in rodent models. Because GRP is produced by pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) in response to γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), we hypothesized that influenza infection promotes GABA release from PNECs that activate GABAB receptors on PNECs to secrete GRP. Oxidative stress was increased in the lungs of influenza A/PR/8/34 (PR8)-infected mice, as well as serum glutamate decarboxylase 1, the enzyme that converts L-glutamic acid into GABA. The therapeutic administration of saclofen, a GABAB receptor antagonist, protected PR8-infected mice, reduced lung proinflammatory gene expression of C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (Ccr2), cluster of differentiation 68 (Cd68), and Toll like receptor 4 (Tlr4) and decreased the levels of GRP and high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in sera. Conversely, baclofen, a GABAB receptor agonist, significantly increased the lethality and inflammatory responses. The GRP antagonist, NSC77427, as well as the GABAB antagonist, saclofen, blunted the PR8-induced monocyte infiltration into the lung. Together, these data provide the first report of neuroregulatory control of influenza-induced disease.

Micro-computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Quality of Root Canal Fillings in Mandibular Molars after Obturation for 54 Months.

INTRODUCTION: The present study evaluated the percentage volume of voids in root canals of mandibular molars that had been obturated for 54 months. METHODS: Thirty extracted human mandibular molars were instrumented and debrided. The teeth were assigned to 3 groups (n = 10) according to the filling technique and sealer used: the single-cone technique using AH Plus sealer (AHS; Dentsply Sirona Endodontics, Tulsa, OK) or EndoSequence BC sealer (BCS; Brasseler USA Dental LLC, Savannah, GA) and the warm vertical compaction technique using AH Plus sealer (AHW). The specimens were stored at 37°C and 100% humidity. Micro-computed tomographic imaging was used to scan each specimen 1 day 54 months after obturation. Data were analyzed using 1-way analysis of variance and the paired t test. RESULTS: The percentage volume of voids in the teeth 1 day after obturation in the AHS group was higher than in the BCS group and the AHW group (P < .05). After 54 months, the proportion of voids decreased in all groups (P < .05). No significant difference was observed between the AHS group and the BCS group after 54 months. Teeth in the AHW group contained fewer voids than the AHS group (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Voids in root canal filling were reduced 54 months after obturation. The warm vertical compaction technique achieved better root canal filling quality in mandibular molars than the single-cone technique when using AHS after long-term storage at 100% humidity.

Efficacy of XP-endo instruments in removing 54 month-aged root canal filling material from mandibular molars.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effectiveness of XP-endo Shaper (XPS) and XP-endo Finisher R (XPFR) instruments in removing aged root filling material from root-treated mandibular molars. METHODS: Thirty mandibular molars were instrumented and divided into three groups: single-cone obturation using AH Plus sealer (AHS) or EndoSequence BC sealer (BCS), and warm vertical compaction using AH Plus sealer (AHW). The specimens were stored at 100% humidity and 37 °C for 54 months. Retreatment was performed using XPS and XPFR. Micro-computed tomography was used to scan the specimens after 54 months, after XPS retreatment and after the supplementary approach using XPFR. RESULTS: The XPS removed more filling material in the BCS and AHS groups, compared with the AHW group (P < 0.05). After supplementary instrumentation XPFR, the proportion of the remaining filling material decreased significantly in all groups (P < 0.05). The XPFR instruments were more efficient in removing filling material in the BCS group than in the AHS or AHW group (P < 0.05). The combined use of XPS and XPFR instruments efficiently removed filling material in the BCS group, followed by the AHS and AHW groups (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Although the combined use of XPS and XPFR instruments helped remove the bulk of aged root filling material from mandibular molars, material removal from canals filled using warm vertical condensation in the critical apical area remains a concern. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Removal of the aged filling materials using XP-endo instruments from the apical area is challenging when instrumented root canals are filled using warm vertical condensation.

A mouse model of human TLR4 D299G/T399I SNPs reveals mechanisms of altered LPS and pathogen responses.

Two cosegregating single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in human TLR4, an A896G transition at SNP rs4986790 (D299G) and a C1196T transition at SNP rs4986791 (T399I), have been associated with LPS hyporesponsiveness and differential susceptibility to many infectious or inflammatory diseases. However, many studies failed to confirm these associations, and transfection experiments resulted in conflicting conclusions about the impact of these SNPs on TLR4 signaling. Using advanced protein modeling from crystallographic data of human and murine TLR4, we identified homologous substitutions of these SNPs in murine Tlr4, engineered a knock-in strain expressing the D298G and N397I TLR4 SNPs homozygously, and characterized in vivo and in vitro responses to TLR4 ligands and infections in which TLR4 is implicated. Our data provide new insights into cellular and molecular mechanisms by which these SNPs decrease the TLR4 signaling efficiency and offer an experimental approach to confirm or refute human data possibly confounded by variables unrelated to the direct effects of the SNPs on TLR4 functionality.

Dissociation of TRIF bias and adjuvanticity.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs), a family of "pattern recognition receptors," bind microbial and host-derived molecules, leading to intracellular signaling and proinflammatory gene expression. TLR4 is unique in that ligand-mediated activation requires the co-receptor myeloid differentiation 2 (MD2) to initiate two signaling cascades: the MyD88-dependent pathway is initiated at the cell membrane, and elicits rapid MAP kinase and NF-κB activation, while the TIR-domain containing adaptor inducing interferon-ß (TRIF)-dependent pathway is initiated from TLR4-containing endosomes and results in IRF3 activation. Previous studies associated inflammation with the MyD88 pathway and adjuvanticity with the TRIF pathway. Gram-negative lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a potent TLR4 agonist, and structurally related molecules signal through TLR4 to differing extents. Herein, we compared monophosphoryl lipid A (sMPL) and E6020, two synthetic, non-toxic LPS lipid A analogs used as vaccine adjuvants, for their capacities to activate TLR4-mediated innate immune responses and to enhance antibody production. In mouse macrophages, high dose sMPL activates MyD88-dependent signaling equivalently to E6020, while E6020 exhibits significantly more activation of the TRIF pathway (a "TRIF bias") than sMPL. Eritoran, a TLR4/MD2 antagonist, competitively inhibited sMPL more strongly than E6020. Despite these differences, sMPL and E6020 adjuvants enhanced antibody responses to comparable extents, with balanced immunoglobulin (Ig) isotypes in two immunization models. These data indicate that a TRIF bias is not necessarily predictive of superior adjuvanticity.

Novel role of gastrin releasing peptide-mediated signaling in the host response to influenza infection.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is an evolutionarily well-conserved neuropeptide that was originally recognized for its ability to mediate gastric acid secretion in the gut. More recently, however, GRP has been implicated in pulmonary lung inflammatory diseases including bronchopulmonary dysplasia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, emphysema, and others. Antagonizing GRP or its receptor mitigated lethality associated with the onset of viral pneumonia in a well-characterized mouse model of influenza. In mice treated therapeutically with the small-molecule GRP inhibitor, NSC77427, increased survival was accompanied by decreased numbers of GRP-producing pulmonary neuroendocrine cells, improved lung histopathology, and suppressed cytokine gene expression. In addition, in vitro studies in macrophages indicate that GRP synergizes with the prototype TLR4 agonist, lipopolysaccharide, to induce cytokine gene expression. Thus, these findings reveal that GRP is a previously unidentified mediator of influenza-induced inflammatory disease that is a potentially novel target for therapeutic intervention.

Influenza "Trains" the Host for Enhanced Susceptibility to Secondary Bacterial Infection.

We previously reported that the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) antagonist Eritoran blocks acute lung injury (ALI) therapeutically in mouse and cotton rat models of influenza. However, secondary (2°) bacterial infection following influenza virus infection is associated with excess morbidity and mortality. Wild-type (WT) mice infected with mouse-adapted influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/34 virus (PR8) and, 7 days later, with Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 3 (Sp3) exhibited significantly enhanced lung pathology and lethality that was reversed by Eritoran therapy after PR8 infection but before Sp3 infection. Cotton rats infected with nonadapted pH1N1 influenza virus and then superinfected with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus also exhibited increased lung pathology and serum high-mobility-group box 1 (HMGB1) levels, both of which were blunted by Eritoran therapy. In mice, PR8 infection suppressed Sp3-induced CXCL1 and CXCL2 mRNA, reducing neutrophil infiltration and increasing the bacterial burden, all of which were reversed by Eritoran treatment. While beta interferon (IFN-ß)-deficient (IFN-ß-/-) mice are highly susceptible to PR8, they exhibited delayed death upon Sp3 superinfection, indicating that while IFN-ß was protective against influenza, it negatively impacted the host response to Sp3 IFN-ß-treated WT macrophages selectively suppressed Sp3-induced CXCL1/CXCL2 transcriptionally, as evidenced by reduced recruitment of RNA polymerase II to the CXCL1 promoter. Thus, influenza establishes a "trained" state of immunosuppression toward 2° bacterial infection, in part through the potent induction of IFN-ß and its downstream transcriptional regulation of chemokines, an effect reversed by Eritoran.IMPORTANCE Enhanced susceptibility to 2° bacterial infections following infection with influenza virus is a global health concern that accounts for many hospitalizations and deaths, particularly during pandemics. The complexity of the impaired host immune response during 2° bacterial infection has been widely studied. Both type I IFN and neutrophil dysfunction through decreased chemokine production have been implicated as mechanisms underlying enhanced susceptibility to 2° bacterial infections. Our findings support the conclusion that selective suppression of CXCL1/CXCL2 represents an IFN-ß-mediated "training" of the macrophage transcriptional response to TLR2 agonists and that blocking of TLR4 therapeutically with Eritoran after influenza virus infection reverses this suppression by blunting influenza-induced IFN-ß.

The θ-defensin retrocyclin 101 inhibits TLR4- and TLR2-dependent signaling and protects mice against influenza infection.

Despite widespread use of annual influenza vaccines, seasonal influenza-associated deaths number in the thousands each year, in part because of exacerbating bacterial superinfections. Therefore, discovering additional therapeutic options would be a valuable aid to public health. Recently, TLR4 inhibition has emerged as a possible mechanism for protection against influenza-associated lethality and acute lung injury. Based on recent data showing that rhesus macaque θ-defensins could inhibit TLR4-dependent gene expression, we tested the hypothesis that a novel θ-defensin, retrocyclin (RC)-101, could disrupt TLR4-dependent signaling and protect against viral infection. In this study, RC-101, a variant of the humanized θ-defensin RC-1, blocked TLR4-mediated gene expression in mouse and human macrophages in response to LPS, targeting both MyD88- and TRIF-dependent pathways. In a cell-free assay, RC-101 neutralized the biologic activity of LPS at doses ranging from 0.5 to 50 EU/ml, consistent with data showing that RC-101 binds biotinylated LPS. The action of RC-101 was not limited to the TLR4 pathway because RC-101 treatment of macrophages also inhibited gene expression in response to a TLR2 agonist, Pam3CSK4, but failed to bind that biotinylated agonist. Mouse macrophages infected in vitro with mouse-adapted A/PR/8/34 influenza A virus (PR8) also produced lower levels of proinflammatory cytokine gene products in a TLR4-independent fashion when treated with RC-101. Finally, RC-101 decreased both the lethality and clinical severity associated with PR8 infection in mice. Cumulatively, our data demonstrate that RC-101 exhibits therapeutic potential for the mitigation of influenza-related morbidity and mortality, potentially acting through TLR-dependent and TLR-independent mechanisms.

A Decoy Peptide that Disrupts TIRAP Recruitment to TLRs Is Protective in a Murine Model of Influenza.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) activate distinct, yet overlapping sets of signaling molecules, leading to inflammatory responses to pathogens. Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domains, present in all TLRs and TLR adapters, mediate protein interactions downstream of activated TLRs. A peptide library derived from TLR2 TIR was screened for inhibition of TLR2 signaling. Cell-permeable peptides derived from the D helix and the segment immediately N-terminal to the TLR2 TIR domain potently inhibited TLR2-mediated cytokine production. The D-helix peptide, 2R9, also potently inhibited TLR4, TLR7, and TLR9, but not TLR3 or TNF-α signaling. Cell imaging, co-immunoprecipitation, and in vitro studies demonstrated that 2R9 preferentially targets TIRAP. 2R9 diminished systemic cytokine responses elicited in vivo by synthetic TLR2 and TLR7 agonists; it inhibited the activation of macrophages infected with influenza strain A/PR/8/34 (PR8) and significantly improved the survival of PR8-infected mice. Thus, 2R9 represents a TLR-targeting agent that blocks protein interactions downstream of activated TLRs.

Gene transfection and expression in resting and activated murine CD4 T cell subsets.

It has been difficult to assess the role of specific genes in activation and differentiation of peripheral T cell subsets such as naive, effector and memory T cells due to the impairments in T cell development and immune pathologies often observed in genetically manipulated mouse models, and the lack of reliable methods for introducing genes into primary mouse T cells. In this study, we demonstrate transient transfection of genes into resting and activated mouse CD4 T cell subsets using "Nucleofection", a modified electroporation technique. Using this approach, cDNA encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) is efficiently taken up and expressed by purified polyclonal and antigen-specific mouse naive, effector and memory CD4 T cells isolated from BALB/c or TCR-transgenic mice. The resultant transfected resting T cells are fully amenable to TCR-mediated activation. We also demonstrate that expression of endogenous gene can be turned on in resting T cells by transfection of a transcriptional transactivator. Our results demonstrate for the first time, the expression of exogenously transfected genes and the modulation of endogenous gene expression in primary mouse T cell subsets. This technology will enable a variety of mechanistic questions on T cell activation, function and signaling to be addressed in T cells that differ in activation history and functional capacities.

Agents that increase AAM differentiation blunt RSV-mediated lung pathology.

RSV is the most significant cause of serious lower respiratory tract infection in infants and young children worldwide. There is currently no vaccine for the virus, and antiviral therapy (e.g., ribavirin) has shown no efficacy against the disease. We reported that alternatively activated macrophages (AAMs) mediate resolution of RSV-induced pathology. AAM differentiation requires macrophage-derived IL-4 and -13, autocrine/paracrine signaling through the type I IL-4 receptor, and STAT6 activation. Based on these findings, we reasoned that it would be possible to intervene therapeutically in RSV disease by increasing AAM differentiation, thereby decreasing lung pathology. Mice treated with the IL-4/anti-IL-4 immune complexes, shown previously to sustain levels of circulating IL-4, increased the RSV-induced AAM markers arginase-1 and mannose receptor and decreased the lung pathology. Induction of PPARγ, shown to play a role in AAM development, by the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone or treatment of mice with the macrolide antibiotic AZM, also reported to skew macrophage differentiation to an AAM phenotype, increased the AAM markers and mitigated RSV-induced lung pathology. Collectively, our data suggest that therapeutic manipulation of macrophage differentiation to enhance the AAM phenotype is a viable approach for ameliorating RSV-induced disease.