Year-Round Cultivation of Tetraselmis sp. for Essential Lipid Production in a Semi-Open Raceway System.

There is increasing demand for essential fatty acids (EFAs) from non-fish sources such as microalgae, which are considered a renewable and sustainable biomass. The open raceway system (ORS) is an affordable system for microalgae biomass cultivation for industrial applications. However, seasonal variations in weather can affect biomass productivity and the quality of microalgal biomass. The aim of this study was to determine the feasibility of year-round Tetraselmis sp. cultivation in a semi-ORS in Korea for biomass and bioactive lipid production. To maximize biomass productivity of Tetraselmis sp., f medium was selected because it resulted in a significantly higher biomass productivity (1.64 ± 0.03 g/L) and lower omega-6/omega-3 ratio (0.52/1) under laboratory conditions than f/2 medium (0.70/1). Then, we used climatic data-based building information modeling technology to construct a pilot plant of six semi-ORSs for controlling culture conditions, each with a culture volume of 40,000 L. Over 1 year, there were no significant variations in monthly biomass productivity, fatty acid composition, or the omega-6/omega-3 ratio; however, the lipid content correlated significantly with photosynthetic photon flux density. During year-round cultivation from November 2014 to October 2017, areal productivity was gradually increased by increasing medium salinity and injecting CO2 gas into the culture medium. Productivity peaked at 44.01 g/m2/d in October 2017. Throughout the trials, there were no significant differences in average lipid content, which was 14.88 ± 1.26%, 14.73 ± 2.44%, 12.81 ± 2.82%, and 13.63 ± 3.42% in 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, respectively. Our results demonstrated that high biomass productivity and constant lipid content can be sustainably maintained under Korean climate conditions.

Photosynthetic production of biodiesel in Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 transformed with insect or plant fatty acid methyltransferase.

Biodiesel contains methyl or ethyl esters of long-chain fatty acids and has recently attracted increasing attention. Microalgae have emerged as a sustainable biodiesel production system owing to their photosynthetic potential. However, the conversion of microalgal biomass to biodiesel requires high energy and is costly. This study aimed to overcome the high cost of the pretreatment process by generating cyanobacteria converting fatty acids to fatty acids methyl ester (FAME) in vivo by introducing the fatty acid methyl ester transferase (FAMT) gene. Two FAMT genes from Drosophila melanogaster and Arabidopsis thaliana were selected and their codons were optimized for insertion in the Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 genome through homologous recombination, respectively. FAMT mRNA and protein expression levels were confirmed through reverse-transcription PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. Furthermore, heterologous expression of the FAMT genes yielded FAME, which was analyzed by gas chromatography. We found that FAMT transformants can be further metabolically optimized and applied for commercial production of biodiesel.

Specific light uptake rates can enhance astaxanthin productivity in Haematococcus lacustris.

Lumostatic operation was applied for efficient astaxanthin production in autotrophic Haematococcus lacustris cultures using 0.4-L bubble column photobioreactors. The lumostatic operation in this study was performed with three different specific light uptake rates (q(e)) based on cell concentration, cell projection area, and fresh weight as one-, two- and three-dimensional characteristics values, respectively. The q(e) value from the cell concentration (q(e1D)) obtained was 13.5 × 10⁻8 µE cell⁻¹ s⁻¹, and the maximum astaxanthin concentration was increased to 150 % compared to that of a control with constant light intensity. The other optimum q e values by cell projection area (q(e2D)) and fresh weight (q( e3D)) were determined to be 195 µE m⁻² s⁻¹ and 10.5 µE g⁻¹ s⁻¹ for astaxanthin production, respectively. The maximum astaxanthin production from the lumostatic cultures using the parameters controlled by cell projection area (2D) and fresh weight (3D) also increased by 36 and 22% over that of the controls, respectively. When comparing the optimal q e values among the three different types, the lumostatic cultures using q(e) based on fresh weight showed the highest astaxanthin productivity (22.8 mg L⁻¹ day⁻¹), which was a higher level than previously reported. The lumostatic operations reported here demonstrated that more efficient and effective astaxanthin production was obtained by H. lacustris than providing a constant light intensity, regardless of which parameter is used to calculate the specific light uptake rate.

Development of a floating photobioreactor with internal partitions for efficient utilization of ocean wave into improved mass transfer and algal culture mixing.

Culturing microalgae in the ocean has potentials that may reduce the production cost and provide an option for an economic biofuel production from microalgae. The ocean holds great potentials for mass microalgal cultivation with its high specific heat, mixing energy from waves, and large cultivable area. Suitable photobioreactors (PBRs) that are capable of integrating marine energy into the culture systems need to be developed for the successful ocean cultivation. In this study, prototype floating PBRs were designed and constructed using transparent low-density polyethylene film for microalgal culture in the ocean. To improve the mixing efficiency, various types of internal partitions were introduced within PBRs. Three different types of internal partitions were evaluated for their effects on the mixing efficiency in terms of mass transfer (k(L)a) and mixing time in the PBRs. The partition type with the best mixing efficiency was selected, and the number of partitions was varied from one to three for investigation of its effect on mixing efficiency. When the number of partitions is increased, mass transfer increased in proportion to the number of partitions. However, mixing time was not directly related to the number of partitions. When a green microalga, Tetraselmis sp. was cultivated using PBRs with the selected partition under semi-continuous mode in the ocean, biomass and fatty acid productivities in the PBRs were increased by up to 50 % and 44% at high initial cell density, respectively, compared to non-partitioned ones. The results of internally partitioned PBRs demonstrated potentials for culturing microalgae by efficiently utilizing ocean wave energy into culture mixing in the ocean.

Comparative analyses of lipidomes and transcriptomes reveal a concerted action of multiple defensive systems against photooxidative stress in Haematococcus pluvialis.

Haematococcus pluvialis cells predominantly remain in the macrozooid stage under favourable environmental conditions but are rapidly differentiated into haematocysts upon exposure to various environmental stresses. Haematocysts are characterized by massive accumulations of astaxanthin sequestered in cytosolic oil globules. Lipidomic analyses revealed that synthesis of the storage lipid triacylglycerol (TAG) was substantially stimulated under high irradiance. Simultaneously, remodelling of membrane glycerolipids occurred as a result of dramatic reductions in chloroplast membrane glycolipids but remained unchanged or declined slightly in extraplastidic membrane glycerolipids. De novo assembly of transcriptomes revealed the genomic and metabolic features of this unsequenced microalga. Comparative transcriptomic analysis showed that so-called resting cells (haematocysts) may be more active than fast-growing vegetative cells (macrozooids) regarding metabolic pathways and functions. Comparative transcriptomic analyses of astaxanthin biosynthesis suggested that the non-mevalonate pathway mediated the synthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate, as the majority of genes involved in subsequent astaxanthin biosynthesis were substantially up-regulated under high irradiance, with the genes encoding phytoene synthase, phytoene desaturase, and ß-carotene hydroxylase identified as the most prominent regulatory components. Accumulation of TAG under high irradiance was attributed to moderate up-regulation of de novo fatty acid biosynthesis at the gene level as well as to moderate elevation of the TAG assembly pathways. Additionally, inferred from transcriptomic differentiation, an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity, a decrease in ROS production, and the relaxation of over-reduction of the photosynthetic electron transport chain will work together to protect against photooxidative stress in H. pluvialis under high irradiance.

Inhibition of Polyphosphate Degradation in Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 through Inactivation of the phoU Gene.

Phosphorus is an essential but non-renewable nutrient resource critical for agriculture. Luxury phosphorus uptake allows microalgae to synthesize polyphosphate and accumulate phosphorus, but, depending on the strain of algae, polyphosphate may be degraded within 4 hours of accumulation. We studied the recovery of phosphorus from wastewater through luxury uptake by an engineered strain of Synechocystis sp. with inhibited polyphosphate degradation and the effect of this engineered Synechocystis biomass on lettuce growth. First, a strain (ΔphoU) lacking the phoU gene, which encodes a negative regulator of environmental phosphate concentrations, was generated to inhibit polyphosphate degradation in cells. Polyphosphate concentrations in the phoU knock-out strain were maintained for 24 h and then decreased slowly. In contrast, polyphosphate concentrations in the wild-type strain increased up to 4 h and then decreased rapidly. In addition, polyphosphate concentration in the phoU knockout strain cultured in semi-permeable membrane bioreactors with artificial wastewater medium was 2.5 times higher than that in the wild type and decreased to only 16% after 48 h. The biomass of lettuce treated with the phoU knockout strain (0.157 mg P/m2) was 38% higher than that of the lettuce treated with the control group. These results indicate that treating lettuce with this microalgal biomass can be beneficial to crop growth. These results suggest that the use of polyphosphate-accumulating microalgae as biofertilizers may alleviate the effects of a diminishing phosphorous supply. These findings can be used as a basis for additional genetic engineering to increase intracellular polyphosphate levels.

Improvement of Lutein and Zeaxanthin Production in Mychonastes sp. 247 by Optimizing Light Intensity and Culture Salinity Conditions.

In this study, we sought to improve lutein and zeaxanthin production in Mychonastes sp. 247 and investigated the effect of environmental factors on lutein and zeaxanthin productivity in Mychonastes sp. The basic medium selection and N:P ratio were adjusted to maximize cell growth in one-stage culture, and lutein and zeaxanthin production conditions were optimized using a central composite design for two-stage culture. The maximum lutein production was observed at a light intensity of 60 µE/m2/s and salinity of 0.49%, and the maximum zeaxanthin production was observed at a light intensity of 532 µE/m2/s and salinity of 0.78%. Lutein and zeaxanthin production in the optimized medium increased by up to 2 and 2.6 folds, respectively, compared to that in the basic medium. Based on these results, we concluded that the optimal conditions for lutein and zeaxanthin production are different and that optimization of light intensity and culture salinity conditions may help increase carotenoid production. This study presents a useful and potential strategy for optimizing microalgal culture conditions to improve the productivity of lutein and zeaxanthin, which has applications in the functional food field.

Enhanced Production of Photosynthetic Pigments and Various Metabolites and Lipids in the Cyanobacteria Synechocystis sp. PCC 7338 Culture in the Presence of Exogenous Glucose.

Synechocystis strains are cyanobacteria that can produce useful biomaterials for biofuel and pharmaceutical resources. In this study, the effects of exogenous glucose (5-mM) on cell growth, photosynthetic pigments, metabolites, and lipids in Synechocystis sp. PCC 7338 (referred to as Synechocystis 7338) were investigated. Exogenous glucose increased cell growth on days 9 and 18. The highest production (mg/L) of chlorophyll a (34.66), phycocyanin (84.94), allophycocyanin (34.28), and phycoerythrin (6.90) was observed on day 18 in Synechocystis 7338 culture under 5-mM glucose. Alterations in metabolic and lipidomic profiles under 5-mM glucose were investigated using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS) and nanoelectrospray ionization-MS. The highest production (relative intensity/L) of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycerol-3-phosphate, linolenic acid, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) 16:0/18:1, MGDG 16:0/20:2, MGDG 18:1/18:2, neophytadiene, oleic acid, phosphatidylglycerol (PG) 16:0/16:0, and PG 16:0/17:2 was achieved on day 9. The highest production of pyroglutamic acid and sucrose was observed on day 18. We suggest that the addition of exogenous glucose to Synechocystis 7338 culture could be an efficient strategy for improving growth of cells and production of photosynthetic pigments, metabolites, and intact lipid species for industrial applications.

Multi-Omic Analyses Reveal Habitat Adaptation of Marine Cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 7338.

Cyanobacteria are considered as promising microbial cell factories producing a wide array of bio-products. Among them, Synechocystis sp. PCC 7338 has the advantage of growing in seawater, rather than requiring arable land or freshwater. Nonetheless, how this marine cyanobacterium grows under the high salt stress condition remains unknown. Here, we determined its complete genome sequence with the embedded regulatory elements and analyzed the transcriptional changes in response to a high-salt environment. Complete genome sequencing revealed a 3.70 mega base pair genome and three plasmids with a total of 3,589 genes annotated. Differential RNA-seq and Term-seq data aligned to the complete genome provided genome-wide information on genetic regulatory elements, including promoters, ribosome-binding sites, 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions, and terminators. Comparison with freshwater Synechocystis species revealed Synechocystis sp. PCC 7338 genome encodes additional genes, whose functions are related to ion channels to facilitate the adaptation to high salt and high osmotic pressure. Furthermore, a ferric uptake regulator binding motif was found in regulatory regions of various genes including SigF and the genes involved in energy metabolism, suggesting the iron-regulatory network is connected to not only the iron acquisition, but also response to high salt stress and photosynthesis. In addition, the transcriptomics analysis demonstrated a cyclic electron transport through photosystem I was actively used by the strain to satisfy the demand for ATP under high-salt environment. Our comprehensive analyses provide pivotal information to elucidate the genomic functions and regulations in Synechocystis sp. PCC 7338.

Different Regulatory Modes of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 in Response to Photosynthesis Inhibitory Conditions.

Cyanobacteria are promising industrial platforms owing to their ability to produce diverse natural secondary metabolites and nonnative value-added biochemicals from CO2 and light. To fully utilize their industrial potency, it is critical to understand their photosynthetic efficiency under various environmental conditions. In this study, we elucidated the inhibitory mechanisms of photosynthesis under high-light and low-temperature stress conditions in the model cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Under each stress condition, the transcript abundance and translation efficiency were measured using transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) and ribosome profiling, and the genome-wide transcription unit architecture was constructed by data integration of transcription start sites and transcript 3'-end positions obtained from differential RNA-seq and sequencing of 3'-ends (Term-seq), respectively. Our results suggested that the mode of photosynthesis inhibition differed between the two stress conditions; high light stress induced photodamage responses, while low temperature stress impaired the translation efficiency of photosynthesis-associated genes. In particular, poor translation of photosystem I resulted from ribosome stalling at the untranslated regions, affecting the overall photosynthetic yield under low temperature stress. Our comprehensive multiomics analysis with transcription unit architecture provides foundational information on photosynthesis for future industrial strain development. IMPORTANCE Cyanobacteria are a compelling biochemical production platform for their ability to propagate using light and atmospheric CO2 via photosynthesis. However, the engineering of strains is hampered by limited understanding of photosynthesis under diverse environmental conditions such as high-light and low-temperature stresses. Herein, we decipher the transcriptomic and translatomic responses of the photosynthetic efficiency to stress conditions using the integrative analysis of multiomic data generated by RNA-seq and ribosome profiling, respectively. Through the generated massive data, along with the guide of the genome-wide transcription unit architecture constructed by transcription start sites and transcript 3'-end positions, we identified the factors affecting photosynthesis at transcription, posttranscription, and translation levels. Importantly, the high-light stress induces photodamage responses, and the low-temperature stress cripples the translation efficiency of photosynthesis-associated genes. The resulting insights provide pivotal information for future cyanobacterial cell factories powered by the engineering toward robust photosynthesis ability.

Current Status and Future Strategies to Increase Secondary Metabolite Production from Cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria, given their ability to produce various secondary metabolites utilizing solar energy and carbon dioxide, are a potential platform for sustainable production of biochemicals. Until now, conventional metabolic engineering approaches have been applied to various cyanobacterial species for enhanced production of industrially valued compounds, including secondary metabolites and non-natural biochemicals. However, the shortage of understanding of cyanobacterial metabolic and regulatory networks for atmospheric carbon fixation to biochemical production and the lack of available engineering tools limit the potential of cyanobacteria for industrial applications. Recently, to overcome the limitations, synthetic biology tools and systems biology approaches such as genome-scale modeling based on diverse omics data have been applied to cyanobacteria. This review covers the synthetic and systems biology approaches for advanced metabolic engineering of cyanobacteria.

New Surface Modification Method To Develop a PET-Based Membrane with Enhanced Ion Permeability and Organic Fouling Resistance for Efficient Production of Marine Microalgae.

This paper presents a new surface modification strategy to develop a poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)-based membrane having a hydrophilic surface, high nutrient ion permeability, sufficient mechanical strength, and organic fouling resistance, using an anthracene (ANT)-attached polyethylene glycol (PEG) surface modification agent (SMA) synthesized in this work. During the modification process, the ANT parts of the SMAs poke through and anchor to the surface of a commercial PET woven fabric via physical interactions and mechanical locking. The PEG chain parts coat the surface in the brush and arch forms, which generates a hydration layer on the fabric surface. The consequently obtained surface property and unique structure of the modified PET-based membrane result in higher nitrate ion permeability, organic fouling resistance, and microalgae production compared to those of the unmodified one. These are also affected by the molecular weight of the PEG and the number density of the anchored SMAs. The study demonstrates that this new surface modification method has the potential to allow the development of a desirable PET-based membrane for the efficient massive production of marine microalgae.

Enhanced lipid productivity in AGP knockout marine microalga Tetraselmis sp. using a DNA-free CRISPR-Cas9 RNP method.

A marine green microalga, Tetraselmis sp., has been studied for the production of biomass and lipids in seawater culture. Since carbohydrate and lipid biosynthesis are competitive metabolic pathways, we attempted to increase lipid synthesis in Tetraselmis by inhibiting carbohydrate synthesis. The main regulatory enzyme in the starch synthesis pathway is ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP). AGP loss-of-function mutants were developed using the CRISPR-Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP) delivery system. AGP mutants showed a slight decrease in growth. However, the lipid content in two AGP mutants was significantly enhanced by 2.7 and 3.1 fold (21.1% and 24.1% of DCW), respectively, compared to that in the wild type (7.68% of DCW) under nitrogen starvation. This study is an example of metabolic engineering by genetic editing using the CRISPR-Cas9 RNP method in marine green microalgae. Consequently, starchless Tetraselmis mutants might be considered potential producers of lipids in seawater cultures.

Proteomics of proteins associated with astaxanthin accumulation in the green algae Haematococcus lacustris under the influence of sodium orthovanadate.

An extensive proteomics analysis has identified proteins associated with astaxanthin accumulation in the green algae Haematococcus lacustris under oxidative stress induced by sodium orthovanadate (SOV). Measurement of total carotenoid accumulation per cell biomass showed an increase from 81 to 136 pg/cell after being exposed to 2.5 mM SOV, when compared to the control cells at day 3 of cultivation. A total of 83 proteins were differentially expressed in SOV-treated H. lacustris in comparison with control cells. They consisted of 34 down-regulated and 49 up-regulated proteins. Of these, 17 highly-expressed proteins were analyzed by MALDI-TOF-MS to identify the function of the differentially expressed proteins in response to oxidative stress in H. lacustris.

Carotenogenesis in Haematococcus lacustris: role of protein tyrosine phosphatases.

In the present study, we examined the inhibitory effects of protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTPase) inhibitors, including sodium orthovanadate (SOV), ammonium molybdate (AM), and iodoacetamide (IA), on cell growth, accumulation of astaxanthin, and PTPase activity in the photosynthetic algae Haematococcus lacustris. PTPase activity was assayed spectrophotometrically and was found to be inhibited 60% to 90% after treatment with the inhibitors. SOV markedly abolished PTPase activity, significantly activating the accumulation of astaxanthin. These data suggest that the accumulation of astaxanthin in H. lacustris results from the concerted actions of several PTPases.

Isolation and genome analysis of Winogradskyella algicola sp. nov., the dominant bacterial species associated with the green alga Dunaliella tertiolecta.

Microalgae and bacteria are known to be closely associated in diverse environments. To isolate dominant bacterial species associated with a green alga, Dunaliella tertiolecta, a photoreactor culture of the microalga was investigated using culture-based and culture-independent approaches. The bacterial community structure of the algal culture showed that the most abundant bacterial species under the culture conditions was related to the genus Winogradskyella. The closely related amplicon sequences, showing ≥ 99.5% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity to one of the isolates, designated IMCC-33238T, constituted > 49% of the bacterial community and was therefore regarded as the most dominant species in the algal culture. Strain IMCC33238T was characterized by Gramstaining-negative and orange-colored rods. Phylogenetic analyses of the 16S rRNA genes as well as whole genome sequences revealed that strain IMCC33238T belonged to Winogradskyella and shared more than 97.2% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with Winogradskyella species. The strain contained iso-C15:1 G, iso-C15:0, iso-C15:0 3-OH, and summed feature 3 (C16:1ω6c and/or C16:1ω7c) as major fatty acids and MK-6 as the predominant quinone. The polar lipids found in strain IMCC33238T were phosphatidylethanolamine, two unidentified aminolipids, and three unidentified lipids. The genome of strain IMCC33238T was 3.37 Mbp in size with 33.9 mol% G + C content and proteorhodopsin. Many genes encoding folate and vitamin production are considered to play an important role in the bacteria-algae interaction. On the basis of phylogenetic and phenotypic characteristics, strain IMCC33238T represents a novel species in the genus Winogradskyella, for which the name Winogradskyella algicola sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is IMCC33238T (= KACC 21192T = NBRC 113704T).

Statistical optimization of the growth factors for Chaetoceros neogracile using fractional factorial design and central composite design.

Statistical experimental designs; involving (i) a fractional factorial design (FFD) and (ii) a central composite design (CCD) were applied to optimize the culture medium constituents for production of a unique antifreeze protein by the Antartic microalgae Chaetoceros neogracile. The results of the FFD suggested that NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, and Na2SiO3 were significant variables that highly influenced the growth rate and biomass production. The optimum culture medium for the production of an antifreeze protein from C. neogracile was found to be Kalleampersandrsquor;s artificial seawater, pH of 7.0ampersandplusmn;0.5, consisting of 28.566 g/l of NaCl, 3.887 g/l of MgCl2, 1.787 g/l of MgSO4, 1.308 g/l of CaSO4, 0.832 g/l of K2SO4, 0.124 g/l of CaCO3, 0.103 g/l of KBr, 0.0288 g/l of SrSO4, and 0.0282 g/l of H3BO3. The antifreeze activity significantly increased after cells were treated with cold shock (at -5oC) for 14 h. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating an antifreeze-like protein of C. neogracile.

Development of Carbon-Based Solid Acid Catalysts Using a Lipid-Extracted Alga, Dunaliella tertiolecta, for Esterification.

Novel carbon-based solid acid catalysts were synthesized through a sustainable route from lipid-extracted microalgal residue of Dunaliella tertiolecta, for biodiesel production. Two carbon-based solid acid catalysts were prepared by surface modification of bio-char with sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2), respectively. The treated catalysts were characterized and their catalytic activities were evaluated by esterification of oleic acid. The esterification catalytic activity of the SO2Cl2-treated bio-char was higher (11.5 mmol Prod.∙h⁻¹âˆ™g Cat. ⁻¹) than that of commercial catalyst silica-supported Nafion SAC-13 (2.3 mmol Prod.∙h⁻¹âˆ™g Cat. ⁻¹) and H2SO4-treated bio-char (5.7 mmol Prod.∙h⁻¹âˆ™g Cat. ⁻¹). Reusability of the catalysts was examined. The catalytic activity of the SO2Cl2-modified catalyst was sustained from the second run after the initial activity dropped after the first run and kept the same activity until the fifth run. It was higher than that of first-used Nafion. These experimental results demonstrate that catalysts from lipid-extracted algae have great potential for the economic and environment-friendly production of biodiesel.

Enzyme/whole-cell biotransformation of plant oils, yeast derived oils, and microalgae fatty acid methyl esters into n-nonanoic acid, 9-hydroxynonanoic acid, and 1,9-nonanedioic acid.

Oils and fatty acids are important renewable resources provided by nature. Therefore, biotransformation of renewable oils and fatty acids into industrially relevant C9 chemicals was investigated in this study. Olive oil, soybean oil, yeast derived oil, and microalgae fatty acid methyl esters were converted into n-nonanoic acid, 9-hydroxynonanoic acid, and 1,9-nonanedioic acid by a lipase and a recombinant Escherichia coli expressing oleate hydratase, long chain secondary alcohol dehydrogenase, Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenase, long chain primary alcohol dehydrogenase, and aldehyde dehydrogenase. It was found that n-nonanoic acid and azelaic acid could be produced to a concentration of 4.3 mM from 3 g/L olive oil with a specific product formation rate of 3.1 U/g dry cells. Biotransformation rates were influenced by compositions of fatty acids and purity of the starting material. This study may contribute to the production of industrially relevant C9 chemicals from renewable oils and fatty acids by simultaneous enzyme/whole-cell biotransformation.

Enhanced Production of Fatty Acids via Redirection of Carbon Flux in Marine Microalga Tetraselmis sp.

Lipids in microalgae are energy-rich compounds and considered as an attractive feedstock for biodiesel production. To redirect carbon flux from competing pathways to the fatty acid synthesis pathway of Tetraselmis sp., we used three types of chemical inhibitors that can block the starch synthesis pathway or photorespiration, under nitrogen-sufficient and nitrogen-deficient conditions. The starch synthesis pathway in chloroplasts and the cytosol can be inhibited by 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea and 1,2-cyclohexane diamine tetraacetic acid (CDTA), respectively. Degradation of glycine into ammonia during photorespiration was blocked by aminooxyacetate (AOA) to maintain biomass concentration. Inhibition of starch synthesis pathways in the cytosol by CDTA increased fatty acid productivity by 27% under nitrogen deficiency, whereas the blocking of photorespiration in mitochondria by AOA was increased by 35% under nitrogen-sufficient conditions. The results of this study indicate that blocking starch or photorespiration pathways may redirect the carbon flux to fatty acid synthesis.